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54701. State Compliance With International Legitimate Norms: Wildlife Preservationist Pressures On Japanese Fishing

Author:
Isao Miyaoka
Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
International Studies Association
Abstract:
Why do states comply with international norms? The analogy of classical theories on individuals' compliance is useful to understand state compliance with international norms. For example, Friedrich Kratochwil lists three theories related to norm compliance in social life: The Hobbesian or realist position derives compliance with norms from force or the threat of force. A second class of theories explains compliance in terms of the long-term utilitarian calculations of actors, a perspective perhaps best identified with Hume's argument about the nature of conventions. Third is the idealist position of Durkheim, who conceptualizes norms and rules as “social facts” existing objectively and constraining individual choices.
Topic:
Environment, International Law, and Sovereignty
Political Geography:
Japan and Israel

54702. Designing an Efficient International Regime for Global Protection of Coral Reefs

Author:
Svetlana Morozova
Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
International Studies Association
Abstract:
International regimes have been a major focus of research in International Relations and Political Economy since the end of the 1970s. Theoretical regime studies owe a great deal of progress to the scholars researching international environmental protection, such as Peter Haas (1989, 1992, 1993), Oran Young (1977, 1982, 1989), Robert Keohane and Marc Levy (1993). From the Young's model of institutional bargaining (1989) to Haas's research on epistemic community activities (1989), we observed the importance of environmental decision-making structures for stimulating the study of institutional birth, maintenance and decline of international regimes.
Topic:
Environment, Globalization, and International Law
Political Geography:
United States

54703. Public Opinion As A Constraint On U.S. Foreign Policy: Assessing The Perceived Value Of American And Foreign Lives

Author:
John Mueller
Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
International Studies Association
Abstract:
Although Americans are extremely sensitive to American casualties, they seem to be remarkably insensitive to casualties suffered by foreigners including essentially uninvolved—that is, innocent—civilians. Several conclusions emerge from an examination of all the cases in which American troops have been deployed on a non-advisory basis since 1941 in situations that were actually or potentially dangerous.
Topic:
Foreign Policy and Politics
Political Geography:
United States and America

54704. Defending Against New Dangers: Arms Control of Weapons of Mass Destruction in A Globalized World

Author:
Major John A. Nagl
Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
International Studies Association
Abstract:
Thomas Schelling and Morton Halperin, in their classic book Strategy and Arms Control, first published in 1961, use the term "arms control" to include "all the forms of military cooperation between potential enemies in the interest of reducing the likelihood of war, its scope and violence if it occurs, and the political and economic costs of being prepared for it." This paper updates their definition of arms control and refocuses it for the post-Cold War world, arguing that arms control in the twenty-first century can remain an important component of U.S. national security policy if defined broadly and applied innovatively. Traditionally an element of nation-to-nation relations and usually conducted bilaterally, in the next century arms control will be an increasingly multilateral affair. Threats to U.S. national security in the next century will increasingly shift from other states to individuals and small groups–sub-and trans-national threats. Defending against these threats in the conventional sense will be difficult, and the focus of arms control will shift to preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction to these groups. It is conceivable that both the parties to arms control agreements and provisions for their enforcement will similarly shift to non-state actors, including multinational corporations.
Topic:
Security, Arms Control and Proliferation, Globalization, and International Cooperation

54705. "Thinking Innovatively About U.S. Military Force"

Author:
John A. Nagl and Elizabeth O. Young
Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
International Studies Association
Abstract:
The confluence of the end of the Cold War and the rise of ethnonationalistic conflicts has led to a proliferation of complex humanitarian emergencies (CHEs) around the world. Internal conflicts which combine large scale displacements of people, mass famine and fragile or failing economic, social and political institutions are becoming commonplace; war remains a common feature of the international landscape despite growing global interdependence. While the end of the Cold War has reduced the risk of great power conflict, it has also decreased the perceived constraints on proxy wars, and as a result, over forty unresolved conflicts currently fester, simmer or rage. International peacekeeping forces alone are unlikely to achieve lasting results in most cases, but they can stop the fighting and assist in bringing about fair and lasting resolutions.
Topic:
Defense Policy and National Security
Political Geography:
United States

54706. State Strength and the European Union: Examining the Impact of Unification on Europe's Major Powers

Author:
Timothy Ponce
Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
International Studies Association
Abstract:
The continued drive to unify Europe holds numerous implications for the measurement of state strength. The emergence of the European Union as a powerful player in the post-Cold War international system still remains to be seen. This article examines the complications for state strength brought about by European unification. Particularly, I examine the impact of unification on state strength for the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Italy from 1960 to the current period. Although potentially construed as part of the pains and process of unification, this paper argues that European unification does not seriously erode the strength of these states. My results indicate that these more powerful states are influenced negatively by the processes of globalization but not regional integration.
Political Geography:
United Kingdom, Europe, France, Germany, and Italy

54707. Civil Society and Official Development Assistance: International Politics, Domestic Structures and the Emergence of International Development NGOs in Japan

Author:
Kim Reimann
Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
International Studies Association
Abstract:
With comparative cases in North America and Europe as a reference point, this paper examines the recent emergence of international development NGOs (IDNGOs) in Japan and the role of state policies in supporting the growth of international civil society. In contrast to other advanced industrial nations where state-IDNGO cooperation in foreign aid programs developed extensively in the 1960s and 1970s, IDNGOs and NGOs were excluded from Japanese ODA policies until the late 1980s. The paper looks at changes in Japanese state policies vis-à-vis IDNGOs in 1989 and the early 1990s and shows how such changes in turn helped stimulate the creation of new citizen-organized international groups in Japan. To explain this shift in state policy, the paper turns to sociological institutional theories and argues that international norms promoted by international organizations and international actors have played an important role in expanding opportunities for IDNGOs in Japan.
Political Geography:
Japan, Europe, and North America

54708. Report of The Carter Center's Fourth Observation of Chinese Village Elections 4 Jan 2000

Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
The Carter Center
Abstract:
At the invitation of the Ministry of Civil Affairs (MCA), People's Republic of China, The Carter Center sent a delegation to observe villager committee (VC) elections in Hebei Province from January 4 to 13, 2000. The delegation was led by Ambassador Gordon L. Streeb, Associate Executive Director of the Center, and made up of nine Center staff members, election experts and China scholars from various universities in the United States and Denmark. This was the fourth time since 1997 that the Center has observed village elections in China and the first time that an international organization has been invited to observe a primary VC election.
Topic:
Civil Society, Democratization, and International Organization
Political Geography:
United States, China, and Denmark

54709. Observing the 1999 Public Consultation Process in East Timor

Publication Date:
06-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
The Carter Center
Abstract:
The May 1998 departure of Indonesian President Suharto, following a 32-year dictatorship, raised hopes of independence for East Timor, where some 200,000 people had died since Indonesia's 1975 invasion of the Portuguese colony. In January 1999, Suharto's successor, Bucharuddin Jusuf (B.J.) Habibie, in an effort to appease the East Timorese and international community, suggested that a vote would be held on autonomy with or in- dependence from Indonesia. Details of this referendum were set forward in the May 5 Agreement, signed by Indonesia, Portugal, and the United Nations.
Topic:
Civil Society, Democratization, International Organization, and United Nations
Political Geography:
Indonesia, Portugal, and Timor

54710. Aftermath: Women and Women's Organizations In Postconflict Bosnia and Herzegovina

Author:
Ross Bankson
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
United States Agency for International Development
Abstract:
<p> From 1992 through 1995, Bosnia and Herzegovina was embroiled in a brutal war. The origins were rooted in a complex web of power politics, economics, and territorial ambitions in which ethnonationalist propaganda was used to divide and conquer. The result was countrywide devastation. <br /><br /> Two interrelated atrocities became hallmarks of the war: “ethnic cleansing” and the systematic rape of women. Ethnic cleansing was a process whereby towns were “purified” of the other ethnic groups through forced eviction and execution. Rape was used as a means of facilitating this process by instilling fear into the community and forcing out its population. The demographic, social, psychological, and physical chaos caused by these combined strategies is the most horrifying and enduring legacy of the war. </p><blockquote><p> </p> </blockquote><p>  </p><p> </p><p> </p>
Topic:
Ethnic Conflict, Gender Issues, Human Welfare, and War
Political Geography:
Bosnia and Balkans

54711. Reducing Urban and Industrial Pollution in Chile

Author:
Joseph M. Lieberson, Mark G. Hodges, and Gene M. Owens
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
United States Agency for International Development
Abstract:
In Chile's capital of Santiago, the summer sun rises over a hazy, smog-filled sky. The sky darkens as the day progresses and often turns a light brown. In winter, air quality is even worse, and visibility drops sharply. A ring of mountains and thermal inversions trap pollution in a choking cloud over the city. But the mountains and air currents are not the whole problem. Twenty years ago the air was relatively clean. That was before economic growth accelerated sharply. A rapid increase in industrial production and a major increase in truck, bus, and automobile traffic are all pumping pollutants into the air. The result is a high level of respiratory problems, sickness, and premature death.
Topic:
Economics, Environment, Human Welfare, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
South America, Latin America, and Chile

54712. Aftermath: Women and Women's Organizations In Postgenocide Rwanda

Author:
Michael Hopps
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
United States Agency for International Development
Abstract:
IN A 100-DAY PERIOD during 1994, more than 500,000 people in the central African nation of Rwanda were massacred. The killings were carried out not by a foreign power and not with weapons of mass destruction. Rather, 1 of every 15 Rwandans was murdered—by other Rwandans. The killers used bullets, machetes, and clubs.
Topic:
Civil Society, Education, Gender Issues, Genocide, Human Welfare, and Politics
Political Geography:
Africa

54713. Understanding Representation: Implications for Legislative Strengthening

Publication Date:
11-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
United States Agency for International Development
Abstract:
The Second International Conference on Legislative Strengthening took place in Wintergreen, Virginia from June 5-8, 2000. Some 165 people participated in the conference. USAID democracy officers, implementing partners, and host-country legislators and staff each accounted for about a quarter of those attending, with the remaining quarter consisting of representatives from other international donors, academics, and other interested parties. The participants hailed from some 30 nations, including many from Africa. Approximately 65 speakers, panelists, and moderators participated in the conference sessions. The conference agenda is included as an appendix of this report.
Topic:
Civil Society, Democratization, Government, and Politics
Political Geography:
Africa

54714. Creating a Global Economy

Author:
Joan E. Spero
Publication Date:
04-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Clarke Forum for Contemporary Issues
Abstract:
Headlines in recent weeks have been filled with news of earthquakes. From Turkey to Taiwan, tectonic plates have been shifting leaving toppled buildings, trapped victims, and homeless survivors in their wake. In the last decade of the twentieth century, other less visible but equally powerful seismic shifts have also taken place. The tectonic plates of the world's political, security and economic systems have shifted dramatically. The end of the Cold War, the creation of a global, capitalist economy, and the emergence of the United States as the world's only superpower—these and other seismic shifts have toppled the dangerous but stable bipolar international system that had endured for nearly fifty years. Power structures, relations among states, international institutions, and international norms have changed in fundamental ways.
Topic:
Economics, Government, and International Trade and Finance
Political Geography:
United States

54715. Voice and Silence in an Email Conversation Group Involving Rural and Urban Women in Australia

Author:
June Lennie
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
Some feminists argue that when women are involved in designing and using technologies in ways that meet their particular needs, new communication technologies such as the Internet and email groups can facilitate empowerment and social change (Collins-Jarvis, 1993; Farwell, Wood, James and Banks, 1999; McCulley and Patterson, 1996). These effects are said to arise because the Internet can make gender, cultural and other differences less relevant, particularly when the identities of list members are unknown. Fredrick (1999) cites researchers who have claimed that computer mediated communication is 'non-hierarchical, more expressive, more democratic, and more inclusive' than traditional forms of communication (p.187). For instance, McCulley and Patterson (1996) found that for feminist students, cyberspace 'provides a place to exchange ideas from many points of view, across boundaries of gender, race and culture' (p.5). Email discussion groups thus potentially offer 'safe spaces' for women to communicate in ways that are consistent with feminist principles and goals. They have been found to facilitate the creation of supportive 'virtual communities' that enable diverse groups of women to give voice to their various issues and concerns, and to share information and network, without the limitations of location, travel costs and time associated with face to face communication (Rural Women and ICTs Team, 1999).
Topic:
Development, Gender Issues, Human Welfare, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
Australia

54716. Managing Assets, Empowering Humans

Author:
Zohra Andi Baso
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
Empowerment of women is a systematic endeavor to ensure the target prosperity of women, a prosperity that is measured not merely in its material aspects but also in its organizational aspects, particularly at the grassroots level. Here, empowerment focuses on women's groups that create the capacity to work efficiently to maintain social habitation, culture, and environment, and also to protect rights.
Topic:
Development, Gender Issues, and Human Rights
Political Geography:
Asia

54717. Micro Intiatives, Marco Solutions: Potential of Women's Self Help Groups and Their Federations in Advocating and Advancing Their Own Rights

Author:
Ranjan K. Panda
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
A UN Report rightly points out, “Women constitute half the worlds' population, perform nearly two-thirds of its work hours, receive one-tenth of the world's income and own less than one-hundredth of the world's property”. Name any sphere of society and women are found playing significant role. No society and its economy have ever flourished without the substantial contributions of its women members. Both in the social and economic division of labour women dominate the show.
Topic:
Development, Gender Issues, and Human Rights
Political Geography:
South Asia

54718. The Sky Is Falling : Market Reforms and the Re-Emergence of Discrimination Against Women in China

Author:
Molly Padgett-Cross
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
Post-Mao China is a country of contentious debate. 1978 market reforms ushered in an astounding improvement in domestic living standards and secured the PRC's role in international trade. With a post-1978 average of 7% increase in GDP year-on- year, the country claims growth more than three times the global average. Continued reforms and their resulting economic improvement leave no doubt of government commitment to fuqiang (to be rich and powerful), as summed by Deng Xiaoping's oft-quoted sentiment, “To be rich is glorious.” However, in the government's desire to ma intain its legitimacy through expanding the private sector and maintaining impressive GDP growth, the state often neglects the welfare of individuals, particularly women.
Topic:
Development, Gender Issues, and Human Rights
Political Geography:
China

54719. Bulgarian Women : Mentality and Life Strategy

Author:
Raya Staykova
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
For the future generations the period of rapid global changes taking place in East European countries during the last 10 years of the 20th century probably will be a social and economic miracle. These changes are dramatic for the societies and they cause personal crises through damaging the standard of life as well as changing people's system beliefs and mentality. Regardless the distress and hurdles presented by the environment these changes are not going along with serious conflicts and social and economic transformation continues to be implemented withstanding the difficulties and barriers.
Topic:
Development, Gender Issues, and Non-Governmental Organization
Political Geography:
Europe and Bulgaria

54720. Women's Organizations and the Building of Civil Society. A Balkan Perspective: The Case of Bulgaria, Croatia and Macedonia

Author:
Genoveva Tisheva
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
We are in the year 2000 and it is the right time to assess and to strike a balance on the role and progress of women' s non-governmental organizations in the context of the development of our region. As a matter of fact, we celebrate this year 10 years from the beginning of democratization processes in Central and Eastern Europe and 5 years from the 4th World Conference on Women in Beijing. We are also in a post - war period for the region that is the focus of important initiatives such as the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe.
Topic:
Development, Gender Issues, and Non-Governmental Organization
Political Geography:
Europe, Beijing, Bulgaria, Balkans, Macedonia, and Croatia

54721. Gender And Politics Under the Suharto Regime 1966 - 1998

Author:
Norma Sullivan
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
This paper describes the relationship between gender and politics in Indonesia under the autocratic Suharto Regime. It provides an historical context for a future study of gender relations under the democratically elected Wahid government. The role of women in politics and government during the Suharto years is elucidated, as is the role of the national 'non-political' women's movement in national development. Contradictions are highlighted in this relationship, and links between scholarly and state planning discourses about the relations between women and men and their proper roles in national development are established. Methods by which women resisted State ideologies within the movement and in the community are described. The paper concludes that during the Suharto period structural inequality existed between men and women in Indonesia. This reality was to some extent concealed by the political ideologies of the Suharto State that argued, from a functionalist/consensus perspective, that while men and women played different roles in different social spheres, these roles were complementary and equal. Such gender stereotyping made it difficult for men and women to operate outside their prescribed roles and fields. It also denied that at the level of everyday life women and men found themselves in contradictory situations where sex-role stereotyping was irrelevant
Topic:
Development, Gender Issues, and Human Welfare
Political Geography:
Indonesia and Asia

54722. From Margin to Center : Theorizing Women's Political Participation from Activism on the Margins to Political Power at the Center

Author:
Patricia Martinez
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
Islamic states are called upon to include provisions in their legislation ensuring the political rights of women as guaranteed by Islam, notably their right to vote, to nominate themselves for election, to be appointed to public posts, and to participate in decision-making.
Topic:
Development, Gender Issues, and Human Welfare
Political Geography:
Asia

54723. Women's NGOs in the System of Civil Society of Ukraine

Author:
Lyudmyla Smolyar
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
The effectiveness of the world's development and reforms is directly linked to the quality of its human resources, the rate of human development and its optimal application at the world, regional and state levels. Within the system of the world development and reforms, Ukraine strives to build a civil society on humanitarian principles, which are a precondition for a democratic state. An important part of democracy formation is gender democracy, which proclaims the imperatives of social, political and human rights without gender discrimination. Gender democracy is a system of expressing the desires of the two sexes – men and women – in a civil society as equals in their rights and opportunities, which are guaranteed by the legislation and practically supported by political and legislative principles and acts, as well as by the construction of social and state structures with consideration for gender interests and needs. Gender democracy in practice is based on the principle of equal and equivalent dignity according to which social justice is provided for both. Gender democracy is a multifaceted phenomenon, it primarily serves as an inner principle, which is at the core of the system of real democracy in the society. Society, built on such an organizational and functional paradigm, can provide human and civil rights, build a fair and humanistic political system, reform the economy on a base which guarantees personal freedom for both men and women, and create a humanistic culture. The multi – directional development of real democracy in society makes it possible to establish and develop gender democracy and guarantee its future.
Topic:
Gender Issues, Human Welfare, and Non-Governmental Organization
Political Geography:
Europe and Ukraine

54724. Women NGOs and the War in Chechnya

Author:
Tatiana Sivaeva
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
Today people from all over the world are discussing the situation in the Republic of Chechnya. Thousands of articles on this issue has been published, hundreds of speeches and programs have been broadcast on radio and television. They discuss political, economical, ethical aspects of the war. For the international community the issues of primary concern are violation of human rights and aggression against civil population of Chechnya. At the same time Russian media and population seem especially worried about the situation within the Russian Army and with economical consequences of the war. But all the vigorous discussions that go on about Chechnya often miss one very important point, which is its gender aspect.
Topic:
Gender Issues, Human Welfare, and Non-Governmental Organization
Political Geography:
Russia, Europe, and Chechnya

54725. "To Heal the Sick" : Women As Creators of Civil Society in Pre-Modern Poland

Author:
Wladyslaw Roczniak
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
Philanthropy, voluntarism and other non-profit activities comprise a branch of historical studies that is currently blossoming. The recent collapse of communism and the democratization of Eastern Europe have added stimulus to such studies. Today's Eastern Europe offers the third sector practitioner and researcher a strange and contradictory prospect. On the one hand, the collapse of communism and the continuous democratization of the region open new and exciting vistas for the development of civil societies. On the other hand, the re-emergence of old ethnic conflicts and traditional power structures can act as deterrents to the establishment of a viable civil society, as such a society is known in the west. The modern not-for-profit practitioner wishing to do work in the countries of Eastern Europe must keep it in mind that today's events reflect the historical complexity of the region; what we learn about the past of Eastern European society teaches us about its present models of voluntarism.
Topic:
Gender Issues, Human Welfare, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
Europe

54726. Women's Advocacy and the Building of Civil Society in Serbia

Author:
Lilijana Cickaric
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
This study provides an illuminating analysis of the role of women's organizations in rapidly developing non-profit sector in Serbia. It presents up-to-date information on the shifting political and socioeconomic context within they operate, the main areas of activity and representative sample of women's organizations and initiatives. The research is designed on feminist principle of subjectivity, where the researcher is also an activist with the purpose of making women's history socially visible and recognized. The aim is also to stress essential role of women advocacy in wider network of non-governmental organisations oriented towards the building of civil society.
Topic:
Civil Society, Gender Issues, and Human Welfare
Political Geography:
Europe and Serbia

54727. The Role of Muslim Women's Organizations in Family Planning Advocacy in Medan

Author:
Hj. Chalidjah Hasan
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
This article deals with the role of Muslim women organizations in Medan in the KB (Family Planning) Advocacy. The sources of the article came from the field study with an observation method, in-depth interview and secondary data. The observation was carried out to look directly at activities concerning the KB Advocacy conducted by Muslim women organizations. Meanwhile the depth interview was conducted with the heads of Muslim women organizations and KB clinic staffs, namely doctors and nurses. The secondary data were used to compare the advocacy programs with the written sources, which were relevant with the studied topic. The samples of the study came from the big three Muslim women organizations in Medan, namely `Aisyiah, Muslimat Nahdlatul Ulama, and Muslimat Al- Washliyah.
Topic:
Development, Gender Issues, and Religion
Political Geography:
Asia

54728. Violence Against Women Construction Workers in Kerala, India

Author:
S.K. Hari Priya
Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies, City University of New York
Abstract:
Woman constitute nearly half of the population of India (48.1 percent which makes 403.4 million women in absolute numbers as per 1991 census). Out of this female population, 74.7 percent are in rural areas and it is abundantly clear that there can be no development unless their needs and interests are fully taken into account. The provision of the constitution of India granting equality to women in various spheres creates the legal framework within which the Department of Women and Child Development, Government of India functions for women's development. Women as a motherhood of the nation, should be strong aware and alert. India is the signatory to the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against woman (CEDAW). India ratified the convention in June 1993. The Department of Woman and Child Development was set up in the year 1985 to give the much needed impetus to the holistic development of women and children in India. The major policy initiatives undertaken be the Department in recent past include, the establishment of the National Commission for Women (NCW), Rasthriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) adoption of National Nutritional Policy, (NNP) Strengthening of Integrated Child Development Schemes (ICDS) setting up National Creche Fund (NCF), launching of Indira Mahila Yojana (IMY), Balika Samridhi Yojaja (BSY) and Rural Women's Development and Empowerment Project etc. There are also few other departments in various ministries considering women's empowerment and gender equality etc. in some of their programmes.
Topic:
Gender Issues, Human Rights, and Poverty
Political Geography:
South Asia, India, and Kerala

54729. Russia's Physical and Social Infrastructure: Implications for Future Development

Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
During the past two years, the National Intelligence Council and the Bureau of Intelligence and Research of the US Department of State sponsored a working group and four seminars with experts from outside the Intelligence Community to examine the impact of societal and infrastructural factors on Russia's future over the next two decades. The factors identified--demography, health, intellectual capital, and physical infrastructure--all pose great challenges to Russia. The purpose of the project was to begin to think through in systematic fashion the difficulties and opportunities confronting Russia's leadership in these four specific areas.
Topic:
Demographics, Development, and Government
Political Geography:
Russia and United States

54730. Global Trends 2015: A Dialogue About the Future With Nongovernment Experts

Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
Over the past 15 months, the National Intelligence Council (NIC), in close collaboration with US Government specialists and a wide range of experts outside the government, has worked to identify major drivers and trends that will shape the world of 2015. The key drivers identified are: Demographics, Natural resources and environment, Science and technology, The global economy and globalization, National and international governance, Future conflict, The role of the United States. In examining these drivers, several points should be kept in mind: No single driver or trend will dominate the global future in 2015 Each driver will have varying impacts in different regions and countries The drivers are not necessarily mutually reinforcing; in some cases, they will work at cross-purposes. Taken together, these drivers and trends intersect to create an integrated picture of the world of 2015, about which we can make projections with varying degrees of confidence and identify some troubling uncertainties of strategic importance to the United States.
Topic:
Economics, Environment, Government, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
United States

54731. Report on IRFA and Annual Report on International Religious Freedom

Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
One of the guiding purposes and principles behind the International Religious Freedom Act (IRFA) is to make the issue of international religious freedom an integral part of this nation's foreign policy agenda. The conditions of religious freedom in certain countries may be grave and deteriorating—in many instances on account of factors beyond the control of the United States—but not, if the IRFA process is working properly and vigorously, on account of a lack of attention paid to the issue as a matter of U.S. foreign policy. This report of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom assesses the vitality and effectiveness of certain parts of the IRFA process as it is functioning in its second year.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Diplomacy, Human Rights, and Religion
Political Geography:
United States

54732. Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on DoD Frequency Spectrum Issues

Publication Date:
11-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
Imagine trying to win an overseas air war where target intelligence can be gathered only part of the day, where aerial refueling is hampered by inability to fly in close formation under prevailing weather conditions, and where many newly developed radio systems for air, sea, and land forces don't work the way they did back in the U.S. Sound unlikely? It isn't - these constraints limited the U.S. forces' ability to operate to maximum efficiency during the Kosovo campaign. These restrictions on U.S. military equipment did not arise from sabotage, maintenance failures, or enemy countermeasures - they resulted from the Department of Defense (DoD) acquisition system's failure to insist on qualifying spectrum allocations for new systems that depend on access to the radio frequency spectrum. Without such qualification, systems that function well in the U.S. may not be usable abroad. Unless new systems' use of radio frequencies is qualified, they may interfere with other military users or with critical civilian users of the radio spectrum, even at home.
Topic:
Defense Policy, Development, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
United States

54733. Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Defense Software

Publication Date:
11-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
The Defense Science Board (DSB) Task Force on Defense Software was formed in September 1999 and tasked to: Review the findings and recommendations of previous Department of Defense (DoD) -wide studies on software development and acquisition Assess the current environment to identify changes since previous studies Assess the current state of software development programs – both DoD and Commercial Identify focused recommendations to improve performance on DoD software intensive programs.
Topic:
Defense Policy, Development, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
United States

54734. Central Asia and the South Caucasus: Reorientations, Internal Transitions, and Strategic Dynamics

Publication Date:
12-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
In April 2000, the National Intelligence Council sponsored a conference that examined the strategic dynamics of the Central Asian countries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, and the South Caucasus countries of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. The conference brought together approximately 100 government and outside experts, including officials and scholars from the countries concerned. It consisted of six panels with presentations from more than 30 academic and regional experts, followed by question-and-answer sessions. The purpose of the conference was not to arrive at a consensus but to deepen understanding of the region.
Topic:
Development and Government
Political Geography:
Central Asia, Eastern Europe, and Georgia

54735. East Asia and the United States: Current Status and Five-Year Outlook

Publication Date:
09-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
The National Intelligence Council and the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress held a one-day unclassified conference on this topic on 17 February 2000, at the Thomas Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress. Seven papers by nongovernment specialists and 11 commentaries by Intelligence Community specialists examined: The likely development of greater divergence or convergence between key East Asian states and the United States over US policies and interests in the region. Whether divergence or convergence between East Asian states and the United States was more likely on security, economic, or political/values questions. In what ways East Asian states would be likely to collaborate in opposition to US policies and interests. Sixty US Intelligence Community, other Executive Branch, congressional, and nongovernment experts participated actively in discussions following the formal papers and commentaries, reinforcing the findings presented below.
Topic:
International Relations and Foreign Policy
Political Geography:
United States and East Asia

54736. Battling International Bribery 2000

Publication Date:
07-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
Bribery of foreign public officials by businesses is a serious problem in the international marketplace. This corrupt practice penalizes firms that play by the rules and compete on the merits of their products and services. But the damage is not limited to billions of dollars of lost exports. Bribery of public officials in commercial dealings undermines good governance, retards economic development and is especially damaging to developing countries and those in transition to market economies.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Defense Policy, and Economics
Political Geography:
United States

54737. Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on the Technology Capabilities of Non-DoD Providers

Publication Date:
06-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
In the years since WWII, the global private sector has come to dominate the development of technology and the manufacturing capabilities for a number of technologies of critical importance to the Defense Department of the Military Services. Examples include information systems, propulsion systems such as gas turbines and logistics systems.
Topic:
Defense Policy, Development, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
United States

54738. Prospects for WTO Trade Negotiations After Seattle: Foreign Strategies and Perspectives

Publication Date:
05-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
In a recent conference, trade experts identified three primary reasons the World Trade Organization (WTO) failed to launch a new trade Round at its December 1999 Ministerial. First, leading members were unable to resolve differences on critical issues prior to the gathering. In addition, many developing countries and nongovernmental organizations were more assertive than they had been at previous conferences. Finally, in recent years, the WTO has expanded the range of issues it addresses, which has made efforts to reach a consensus on any point more difficult. According to the speakers, as a result of the acrimonious Ministerial, the WTO has suffered a substantial loss of credibility, which will impair efforts to launch a new Round in the near term. There is no immediate alternative to strong US leadership, and WTO negotiations will be more complicated because developing countries and nongovernmental organizations will be more inclined to resist trade liberalization efforts that they believe do not advance their interests. Experts at the conference offered a variety of assessments regarding the course the WTO might choose to follow this year. The majority argued that if the trade body is seeking to rebuild confidence, it could continue with scheduled meetings on agriculture and services and use the time to rebuild confidence. A minority, however, held that the forum is too fractured to make progress, thus talks would only undermine the already declining prestige of the trade body. The experts identified several long-run challenges that the WTO will probably need to address to be an effective decisionmaking institution, including: Bridging the developed-developing country gap Costa Rica, Mexico, and South Africa generally support trade liberalization and have credibility among developed and developing states; thus they are in a position to meld the interests of the two sides. Enacting institutional reforms The organization's expansive agenda and large membership require that it adopt policies that facilitate decisionmaking, especially before new members such as China and Russia join. The trade body may try to increase transparency to promote greater trust in its procedures. Also, to avoid protracted and bitter selections such as the forum suffered last year, the WTO could review its procedures for electing a new director general. Managing the backlash against globalization Supporters of freer trade could launch a massive educational program to highlight the gains for all countries from expanded trade and to counter the dire assertions made by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Development, Economics, and International Trade and Finance
Political Geography:
Russia and China

54739. Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on The Creation and Dissemination of All Forms of Information in Support of Psychological Operations in Time of Military Conflict

Publication Date:
05-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
The Defense Science Board (DSB) Task Force on the Creation and Dissemination of All Forms of Information in Support of Psychological Operations (PSYOP) in Time of Military Conflict was charged with reviewing PSYOP activities within the Department of Defense (DoD).
Topic:
Defense Policy, Human Welfare, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
United States

54740. First Annual Report

Publication Date:
05-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
This is the first report of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (Commission), created by the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 (IRFA). IRFA established a multi-faceted program for ensuring that religious freedom has a permanent and significant place in the formulation and application of U.S. foreign policy.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Diplomacy, Human Rights, and Religion
Political Geography:
United States

54741. Patterns of Global Terrorism 1999

Publication Date:
04-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
The US Government continues its commitment to use all tools necessary—including international diplomacy, law enforcement, intelligence collection and sharing, and military force—to counter current terrorist threats and hold terrorists accountable for past actions. Terrorists seek refuge in “swamps” where government control is weak or governments are sympathetic. We seek to drain these swamps. Through international and domestic legislation and strengthened law enforcement, the United States seeks to limit the room in which terrorists can move, plan, raise funds, and operate. Our goal is to eliminate terrorist safehavens, dry up their sources of revenue, break up their cells, disrupt their movements, and criminalize their behavior. We work closely with other countries to increase international political will to limit all aspects of terrorists' efforts.
Topic:
Defense Policy and War
Political Geography:
United States

54742. Annual Report on the Military Power of the People's Republic of China

Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
China's People's Liberation Army (PLA) is embarked on an ambitious, long-term military modernization effort to develop capabilities to fight and win short-duration, high- intensity conflicts along its periphery. China's defense modernization is broad reaching, encompassing the transformation of virtually all aspects of the military establishment, to include weapon systems, operational doctrine, institution building, and personnel reforms. China values military power to defend economic interests, secure territorial claims, and build political influence commensurate with its status as a regional power with global aspirations. In recent years, the PLA has accelerated reform and modernization in response to the central leadership's concerns that developments across the Taiwan Strait could put at risk Beijing's objectives for Taiwan unification.
Topic:
Defense Policy and Arms Control and Proliferation
Political Geography:
United States, China, Taiwan, and Beijing

54743. Chemical and Biological Defense Program Annual Report to Congress

Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1994, Public Law No. 103-160, Section 1703 (50 USC 1522), mandates the coordination and integration of all Department of Defense chemical and biological (CB) defense programs. As part of this coordination and integration, the Secretary of Defense is directed to submit an assessment and a description of plans to improve readiness to survive, fight and win in a nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) contaminated environment. This report contains modernization plan summaries that highlight the Department's approach to improve current NBC defense equipment and resolve current shortcomings in the program. 50 USC 1522 has provided the essential authority to ensure the elimination of unnecessarily redundant programs, focusing funds on DoD and program priorities, and enhancing readiness.
Topic:
Defense Policy, Science and Technology, and War
Political Geography:
United States

54744. Report on Allied Contributions to the Common Defense 2000

Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
This Report presents the Department of Defense assessment of the relative contributions toward the common defense and mutual security made by our NATO allies, our Pacific allies, (Japan and the Republic of Korea), and the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Under legislative provisions dating to the Defense Authorization Act of 1981 (P.L. 96-342, Section 1006), the Department of Defense is required to compare the defense burdens borne by our allies, explain disparities, and describe efforts to eliminate such disparities. This Report addresses requirements originally set forth in the 1984 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 98-525), Title X, Section 1003, Defense Burdensharing, paragraphs a-d. The most recent baseline legislation addressing this reporting requirement is the FY 1997 National Defense Authorization Act, Title X, Section 1084. This Report also covers burdensharing reporting requirements set forth in the FY 2000 Department of Defense Military Construction Appropriations Act (P.L. 106-52), Section 119.
Topic:
Security, Defense Policy, and NATO
Political Geography:
Japan, Australia/Pacific, and Korea

54745. The Global Infectious Disease Threat and Its Implications for the United States

Publication Date:
01-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Abstract:
New and reemerging infectious diseases will pose a rising global health threat and will complicate US and global security over the next 20 years. These diseases will endanger US citizens at home and abroad, threaten US armed forces deployed overseas, and exacerbate social and political instability in key countries and regions in which the United States has significant interests.
Topic:
Economics, Environment, Human Welfare, and National Security
Political Geography:
United States

54746. Commentary: Trade and the Environment After Seattle–Perspectives From The Wilson Center

Author:
William M. Daley, Andrea Durbin, Mikhail Gorbachev, Martin Albrow, Stacy D. Vandeever, Anju Sharma, Stephen Clarkson, Kent Hughes, and Tamar Gutner
Publication Date:
06-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
The Wilson Center
Abstract:
Free trade, seen by many as the engine of world economic growth, has once again become the subject of bitter dispute. Nowhere was this more evident than at the meeting of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in Seattle at the end of 1999. There, environmentalists joined with trade unionists and advocates for developing countries in staging mass protests. These diverse groups claimed the WTO is unrepresentative and undemocratic, overlooking environmental interests and those of the world's poor in favor of big business. Inside the negotiating halls, the United States and the European Union clashed over agricultural subsidies and genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Developing country representatives complained that they remained marginalized in the official talks.
Topic:
Security, Development, Environment, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
United States and Europe

54747. Exploring Capacity for Integration: University of Michigan Population-Environment Fellows Programs Impact Assessment Project

Author:
Denise Caudill
Publication Date:
06-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
The Wilson Center
Abstract:
Since 1993, the University of Michigan Population-Environment Fellows Programs (PEFP) has linked the population and environment sectors of development both at the field level and in policy analysis. The PEFP and Denise Caudill of World Neighbors launched the Impact Assessment Project to develop a framework for assessing an integrated program. This article addresses project findings, including the successes, constraints, and obstacles of integrated/linked programs, as well as provides field examples from Ecuador and Madagascar. Denise Caudill, the coordinator for this project, offers lessons on the implications of implementing integrated/linked programs from the community to the national, regional, and international levels.
Topic:
Security, Development, Environment, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
Madagascar

54748. Oiling the Friction: Environmental Conflict Management in the Niger Delta, Nigeria

Author:
Okechukwu Ibeanu
Publication Date:
06-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
The Wilson Center
Abstract:
The Niger Delta, a sensitive ecosystem rich in biodiversity, has witnessed considerable violence as a result of the tense relationship among oil companies, the Nigerian state, and oil-bearing communities. Environmental damage from the extraction and movement of fossil fuels is a central point of dispute among the parties while the precise extent of ecological damage remains unknown. Drawing on numerous interviews while living and working in the Niger Delta, Dr. Okechukwu Ibeanu analyzes the management of conflicts surrounding petroleum production in the region, including the role of state violence and contradictory perceptions of security held by Delta communities and the oil companies and their partners in the Nigerian federal government.
Topic:
Security, Development, Environment, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
Nigeria

54749. Human Population and Environmental Stresses in the Twenty-first Century

Author:
Richard E. Benedick
Publication Date:
06-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
The Wilson Center
Abstract:
Human populations have put pressure on their natural surroundings throughout history. Yet the world is now facing truly global environmental challenges and rapid population growth in the final half of the twentieth century is a critical component to understanding these phenomena. In his article, Ambassador Richard Benedick examines a host of population dynamics and their complex interlinkages with three representative environmental issue areas: forests, freshwater resources, and climate change. These connections raise the importance of meeting the commitments made at the 1994 Cairo International Conference on Population and Development. Benedick maintains that investments in measures to slow the rate of population growth-and thereby to reach a stable population earlier, and at lower levels, than under current trends-would significantly reinforce efforts to address the environmental challenges of the century ahead, and considerably lower the cost of such efforts.
Topic:
Security, Development, Environment, and Science and Technology
Political Geography:
United States and Central America

54750. Urban Violence in São Paulo

Author:
Nancy Cardia
Publication Date:
03-2000
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
The Wilson Center
Abstract:
Today homicide is the highest cause of death of young people in Brazil. Nancy Cardia, senior researcher at the University of São Paulo's Center for the Study of Violence, examines urban violence in São Paulo arguing that violence has become a major public health problem.
Topic:
Conflict Resolution, Development, Economics, Human Welfare, and Industrial Policy
Political Geography:
South America and Latin America