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1. Budget Brief: Samagra Shiksha

Author:
Mridusmita Bordoloi, Avani Kapur, and Sidharth Santhosh
Publication Date:
02-2023
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Centre for Policy Research, India
Abstract:
Samagra Shiksha is Government of India’s (GoI’s) school education programme covering preprimary to higher-secondary levels. Launched in April 2018, the scheme is the primary vehicle to implement the provisions under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, and the goals for school education envisaged under the National Education Policy (NEP), 2020. After a year of reopening of schools, post the COVID-19 pandemic, this brief uses government data to analyse Samagra Shiksha performance based on: ■ Trends in allocations, releases, and expenditures; ■ Component-wise approved budgets; ■ School enrolment trends pre and post COVID-19 pandemic; and ■ Learning outcomes and ICT infrastructure.
Topic:
Education, Governance, Budget, COVID-19, and Public Spending
Political Geography:
South Asia and India

2. The future of women in India: Barriers, facilitators and opportunities

Author:
Amita Vyas, Misha Iqbal, Capucine Querenet, Harris Samad, and Irfan Nooruddin
Publication Date:
03-2023
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Atlantic Council
Abstract:
The barriers South Asian women face in the workforce are deep and intersecting, including but not limited to: accessing digital technology; disruptions to supply chains; the dual burden of managing eldercare and childcare; limited physical and mental health services; and the increased risk of gender-based violence (GBV). These are key obstacles to women’s labor force participation, and all were exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. According to a joint report published by the International Finance Corporation and the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women), 35 percent of women entrepreneurs in India reported that they have suffered declining revenues due to COVID-19, and 72 percent of female small business owners in Sri Lanka reported experiencing difficulties accessing their usual financial services. The same report found that female job-loss rates resulting from COVID-19 are about 1.8 times higher than male job-loss rates globally. Women’s participation and advancement in the labor force not only benefits women themselves, but also men, families, communities, and the entire nation. Despite this, women’s work is a minefield of visible and invisible barriers, rooted in inequality, patriarchy, and privilege. Global corporations, civil society, governments, and businesses across the South Asian region and the globe are committed and poised to support women’s advancement in the workplace, and are well positioned to accelerate and complement these efforts through direct investments and advocacy. But, first, two key areas must be explored, and they serve as the foci for this issue brief: Raise awareness of key economic challenges facing women across the region. Explore best practices and opportunities for addressing these pressing challenges.
Topic:
Education, Women, Resilience, and Society
Political Geography:
South Asia and India

3. Internationalising Indian Education: Work Visas for Foreign Students

Author:
Sifra Lentin
Publication Date:
11-2023
Content Type:
Research Paper
Institution:
Gateway House: Indian Council on Global Relations
Abstract:
This paper recommends amending India’s student visa policy to allow foreign students to work in India on paid internships while studying at Indian colleges and universities, and in jobs for pre-determined periods after they graduate. This modification to India’s ‘S’ Visa provisions would be an important step towards internationalising Indian higher education institutes (IHEIs) – a pivotal objective of India’s New Education Policy (NEP 2020), which advocates attracting more foreign students to study in Indian colleges but does not address changes in student visa rules, even though they would align India’s student visa practices with global norms. The paper supports its argument with five key findings: First, authorising foreign students to work in India surely would attract many more than the estimated 50,000 foreign students currently studying in Indian colleges either at their own cost or on scholarships. Second, India’s accredited new private and regional or state universities and colleges would benefit greatly from an increase in overseas students. New Indian universities have been seeking to build culturally and globally diverse student bodies, enrich classrooms, expand student networks and bring in foreign-exchange revenues. Allowing foreign students to work during or immediately after their time on campus will support their pursuit of all these goals, in particular by attracting students from beyond India’s neighbourhood. The success of overseas Indian doctors and engineers in these countries will encourage students from developed countries to enrol in Indian institutions, and students from established source countries in Africa and South Asia will see the opportunity to get field experience in India as a key value addition to Indian degrees. Third, work visas for foreign students would be important for Indian companies that are internationalising. Through on-campus recruitment and hiring of foreign talent on Indian campuses and hiring alumni of Indian colleges and universities who return to their home countries, Indian companies should be able to develop a natural talent cohort that is culturally acclimatised to India. Fourth, alumni of Indian institutions of higher learning who return to their countries of origin can serve as a valuable “cultural bridge” between India and other countries. Finally, for India’s foreign policy, student work visas would reinforce an important plank of bilateral relations: reciprocity. An estimated 65% of Indian students who study abroad – 7,50,000 Indian students in 2022 – avail themselves of overseas work experience. Offering one-to-three-year work visas to foreign students who graduate from Indian universities can only strengthen India’s international relationships. A student work visa policy can be implemented in a two-year phased and regulated manner. Such an implementation period will help all stakeholders – universities and colleges, companies, and ministries of education, external affairs, home, finance, and commerce – to develop and hone systems, processes, policy, regulations and coordination structures.
Topic:
Education, Students, Visa, and Internationalization
Political Geography:
South Asia and India

4. Budget Brief: Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman

Author:
Avani Kapur, Sharad Pandey, and Madhur Sharma
Publication Date:
02-2023
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Centre for Policy Research, India
Abstract:
The National Programme of PM POSHAN, previously known as the National Scheme for Mid-Day Meals in schools (MDM), is a scheme to provide one hot cooked meal in government and government-aided schools, with an aim to improve the nutritional status of students. This brief reports on trends for PM POSHAN performance along the following parameters: ■ Past trends in allocations, releases, and utilisation; ■ Coverage and provision of meals to students; and ■ Management Information System (MIS) and Automated Monitoring System (AMS).
Topic:
Education, Budget, and Students
Political Geography:
South Asia and India

5. Girls’ Right to Education in Pakistan: Critical Reflections on Malala’s Campaign in her Hometown

Author:
Zihad Ali Shah, Rahman Ullah, and Zafar Khan
Publication Date:
12-2022
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Review of Human Rights
Institution:
Society of Social Science Academics (SSSA)
Abstract:
During the War on Terrorism, the Taliban destroyed girls’ schools and discourage their education. At this time Malala Yousafzai, a teenage girl, stood up to them and fought for girls’ education rights. Though she went through a physical and psychological ordeal after the Taliban shot her in the head she persisted in her initiative. Soon she was much praised in the Western media and also landed a Nobel Prize for her efforts. However, in her hometown, she became somewhat controversial. By engaging the ethnographic method, we bring to light different perspectives on Malala’s initiative in the valley of Swat. This article also contributes to the study of the growingly complex social and political figure of Malala Yousafzai.
Topic:
Education, Women, Girls, Gender, and Malala Yousafzai
Political Geography:
Pakistan, South Asia, and Swat Valley

6. So Old and Yet So New: Buddhist Education and the Monastic Curriculum in Contemporary Bhutan

Author:
Dorji Gyeltshen and Manuel Lopez
Publication Date:
03-2022
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Journal of Bhutan Studies
Institution:
Centre for Bhutan & GNH Studies (CBS)
Abstract:
The emergence of a modern secular educational system in Bhutan in the 1960s forced the monastic institutions in the country to adapt and change to the new social, political and educational landscape. This article explores the transformation and changes to monastic education in Bhutan during the second half of the 20th century and the early 21st century, with a particular focus on the introduction of a new monastic curriculum in the 1980s and the rise of the Shedra (Tib. bshad grwa) or monastic college as the central religious educational institution in contemporary Bhutan. The article is based on research that took place during the summers of 2018 and 2019, where the authors visited dozens of monasteries, collected various curricula, and talked to monks and officials all over the country. We argue that Bhutan is in the midst of a new transformational period in which Buddhist education and the monastic curriculum are being revitalized through a series of innovations and changes that have to do as much with a dialogue with secular education as with the impact of other factors: the influence of transnational Buddhist movements and ideas, the introduction of the commentarial curriculum from Tibetan monasteries in India, and the loss of political power after the introduction of the Bhutanese constitution in 2008, among others. The result is a monastic curriculum that asserts specific Bhutanese sectarian and national identity, and introduces a religious education that is transforming monastic life and education in ways that we are only beginning to see.
Topic:
Education, Religion, Buddhism, and Curriculum
Political Geography:
South Asia, India, Tibet, and Bhutan

7. Civil Society & Political Transformations (Harvard Journal of Middle Eastern Politics and Policy, Fall 2021)

Author:
Ghazi Ghazi
Publication Date:
04-2022
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Harvard Journal of Middle Eastern Politics and Policy
Institution:
The John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University
Abstract:
Eleven years after the 2011 Arab Spring, feelings of transformation and change still reverberate throughout the region. The Spring 2022 edition, Civil Society and Political Transformations, seeks to illuminate how civil society organizations operate in the region and their effects on political transformations.
Topic:
Civil Society, Education, Human Rights, Migration, Politics, Race, History, Reform, Women, Constitution, Arab Spring, Syrian War, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Baath Party, and Peacebuilding
Political Geography:
Afghanistan, Iraq, South Asia, Turkey, Middle East, Israel, Libya, Yemen, Palestine, North Africa, Syria, Jordan, Morocco, and United Arab Emirates

8. Elementary education in India versus China: Guidelines for NEP implementation

Author:
Naveen Kumar and Vinitha Varghese
Publication Date:
06-2022
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
United Nations University
Abstract:
This paper documents the state of elementary education in India and China since the 1960s, key lessons for India from China’s shift in focus from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’, and evidencebased guidelines for effective implementation of India’s New Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020). The divergent policy focus has led to differential trajectories for elementary education in the two emerging economies, with China being decades ahead in improving literacy rates. China’s adoption of the New Curriculum Reform 20 years before India’s NEP 2020 has put China on the path to achieving equitable development of ‘quality’ compulsory schooling. India’s NEP 2020 has components that have the potential to improve quality, equity, and efficiency of the education system. This paper makes the following recommendations for effective implementation of some of the NEP 2020 components: (1) an additional worker should be recruited at every preschool centre; (2) more resources should be allocated towards implementation, evaluation, and needed recalibration of the management of school clusters; (3) teacher recruitment, training, and rewards should be revamped; (4) standardized tests should be protected from data corruption, fudging, or grade inflation; and (5) a national-level road map and regular evaluations have to be introduced to ensure participation of socio-economically disadvantaged groups in education.
Topic:
Education, Literacy, and Schools
Political Geography:
China, South Asia, India, and Asia

9. Is economic development affected by the leaders’ education levels?

Author:
Chandan Jain, Shagun Kashyap, Rahul Lahoti, and Soham Sahoo
Publication Date:
06-2022
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
United Nations University
Abstract:
Although formal education is often considered an indicator of political leaders’ quality, the evidence on the effectiveness of educated leaders is mixed. Besides, minimum education qualifications are increasingly being used as requirements for contesting elections, making it critical to understand the role of politicians’ education in their performance. We investigate the impact of electing an educated politician on economic development in the politician’s constituency in India. We use constituency-level panel data on the intensity of night-time lights to measure economic activity. Our identification strategy is based on a regression discontinuity design that exploits quasirandom outcomes of close elections between educated and less-educated politicians. We find that narrowly electing a graduate leader, as compared to a non-graduate leader, in the state assembly constituency increases the growth rate of night-time lights by about three percentage points in the constituency. As pathways, we find that graduate leaders improve the provision of roads, electricity, and power; however, they do not significantly impact the overall provision of public goods. In comparison with findings from other studies in the literature, our result suggests that the impact of formal education of the leader is weaker than the leader’s other characteristics, such as gender or criminality.
Topic:
Education, Politics, Elections, and Leadership
Political Geography:
South Asia and India

10. Role of Demographic Factors in Children’s Language Acquisition at Middle Level: A South Asian Countries’ Survey Study

Author:
Sana Nazir Ahmed, Mehwish Liaqat, Rabia Aslam, and Muhammad Suhaib Karamat
Publication Date:
07-2022
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
South Asian Studies
Institution:
Department of Political Science, University of the Punjab
Abstract:
Language is one of the most complex abilities, especially teaching in a formal learning environment and demography may help to comprehend social and economic issues and find viable answers. It engages in market research, labor market analysis, insurance forecasting, economic development, and social planning. People in South Asian countries work for private and public institutions at local, regional, national, and international levels. This research deals with the language learning of child acquisition and its influence on demographic elements, and the most crucial element in this discussion is the various implications on South Asia countries and the results of a research study conducted among private and government students (N=500) who are studying in different Muslim and nonMuslims schools of Lahore, Pakistan. This study investigates the effect of demographic factors on children's language acquisition at the middle level all over Asian countries. The researchers developed a questionnaire that contained 40 items, 37 are close-ended and 3 are open-ended. Quantitative and descriptive statistics with SPSS software are employed to investigate the effect of all demographic factors on the language learning process of children. The results indicate the pertinent findings against each major construct/theme such as age, gender, parents' (income, status, education, background, and occupation), social and economic context, rural and urban society, and cultural influence. It also shows that each factor has a deep influence on language acquisition among middle-level students, and Asian countries are affected a lot. This study investigates the short- and long-term effects of demographic variables on the language acquisition of South Asian children.
Topic:
Demographics, Education, Children, Language, and Students
Political Geography:
Pakistan and South Asia

11. Standardization and ethnocracy in Sri Lanka

Author:
Neil DeVotta
Publication Date:
08-2022
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
United Nations University
Abstract:
Standardization was the scheme that replaced meritocracy in Sri Lanka education, with positive discrimination to increase the majority Sinhalese community’s university enrolment. It did so by minimizing better-qualified minority Tamils’ university entry, even as the quest for Tamil separatism was gaining ground. The government claimed the scheme was justified to create a more balanced representation in science-based university fields, but it was among the policies that contributed to the island becoming an ethnocracy. While standardization was later discarded, its legacy continues thanks to the district quota system it fostered and the inequalities it helped to cement between ethnic groups. Ultimately, standardization did not merely complicate existing inequalities; it also contributed to anomie and substandard professionalism within the educational and governmental sectors. A path dependence explanation helps us to better understand why the policy was instituted, and why district quotas continue to operate.
Topic:
Education, Inequality, Ethnicity, Separatism, Standardization, Path Dependency, and Ethnocracy
Political Geography:
South Asia and Sri Lanka

12. One Nation One Subscription

Author:
Usha Mujoo Munshi and Jagdish Arora
Publication Date:
01-2021
Content Type:
Special Report
Institution:
India International Centre (IIC)
Abstract:
One Nation, One Subscription (ONOS), an initiative proposed by the Government of India (GoI), aims to provide countrywide access to national and international scientific and academic content. ONOS is expected to sign national licenses with most of the prominent STEM publishers and database producers across the world in order to encourage easy access to highquality academic information, thus stimulating scientific research and innovation in the country. This initiative is expected to benefit research and educational institutions including universities, colleges, research organisations, as well as every citizen of the country through public libraries.
Topic:
Education, Government, Research, Academia, Publishing, and Information
Political Geography:
South Asia and India

13. Push, Pull and Falling out: Determinant Factors of Drop-out in Technical Training Institutes in Bhutan

Author:
Sonam Wangmo and Sangay Tshewang
Publication Date:
11-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Journal of Bhutan Studies
Institution:
Centre for Bhutan & GNH Studies (CBS)
Abstract:
This study determined the determinant pull, push and falling out factors that influenced students to drop out of Technical Training Institutes (TTIs). Institute was the agent for the push factor, while students themselves were agents for the pull factor. For the falling out factor, neither institute nor student was an agent, but the situations which are not in control of both. The study also further explored the dominant and the least prevalent factors that led the student to drop out from TTIs. The closed-ended dichotomous survey questionnaire was used for collecting data from drop-outs. Collected data were analyzed using the SPSS software package. The findings supported that pullout factors related to family played a prominent role in the complex sequence of events that factored into students’ decision to drop out. In contrast, falling out that encapsulated more of peer-related factors remained the most negligible prevalent factor. The result also pointed out that the accumulation of more than three individual factors caused students to drop out of TTIs. Furthermore, it was also evident from the outcome that poverty, lack of education and low social status of parents increased odds for a student to drop out.
Topic:
Education, Vocational Training, Students, and Dropout Prevention
Political Geography:
South Asia and Bhutan

14. South Asian Universities: Effect of Personality Traits on Procrastination of Students at University Level

Author:
Ghazala Noureen, Anam Noshaba, Mahnoor Naveed, and Nadia Saleem
Publication Date:
01-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
South Asian Studies
Institution:
Department of Political Science, University of the Punjab
Abstract:
This study examined the effect of personality traits on procrastination of university students. All the students enrolled in public and private universities of the Punjab were population of the study. Sample was comprised of 500 students which were selected through convenient sampling technique. Due to Covid-19 convenient sampling technique was used. Two instruments were used to measure personality traits and procrastination. Big Five Inventory was used to measure personality traits and 20-item Procrastination Scale was used to measure procrastination. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the data. It was found that sample data fit the hypothetical model well. Randomly selected large sample is recommended to further probe the cause-effect relationship of variables understudy.
Topic:
Education, Labor Issues, Psychology, Higher Education, Students, and Personality
Political Geography:
South Asia and Asia

15. Case Studies on the Role of Gender and Identity in Shaping Positive Alternatives to Extremisms

Author:
Rosalie Fransen, Melinda Holmes, Helena Gronberg, Stacey Schamber, and Shannon Foley Martinez
Publication Date:
10-2021
Content Type:
Case Study
Institution:
International Civil Society Action Network (ICAN)
Abstract:
The International Civil Society Action Network (ICAN), with the support of Global Affairs Canada, has developed a set of “Case Studies on the Role of Gender and Identity in Shaping Positive Alternatives to Extremisms,” in Cameroon, Indonesia, Jordan, Libya, Pakistan, Somalia, Sweden, and the United States. The case studies demonstrate how conducting a Gender-Based Analysis Plus (GBA+) improves understanding of the drivers, narratives and roles that engender extremisms and violent extremist activity. By profiling examples of peacebuilding, deradicalization, reintegration and counternarrative work in these contexts, the case studies emphasize how attention to gender and intersectional identities can improve the effectiveness of interventions to transform extremisms – not only by preventing or countering it, but by providing positive alternatives that enable people to realize a peaceful, pluralistic future. The case studies cover a number of themes relevant to contemporary preventing/countering violent extremism (P/CVE) and counterterrorism (CT) work, including countering white supremacist extremism, the role of masculinities in recruitment and disengagement, addressing trauma and deploying mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) approaches in reintegration and rehabilitation, and work with religious leaders to promote peaceful, pluralistic and gender-just interpretations of religious texts and traditions. The case studies are intended for use by practitioners and policymakers to guide them in conducting a gender analysis and in integrating responsiveness to gender and identity factors in policies and interventions.
Topic:
Education, Religion, Violent Extremism, Counter-terrorism, Women, Inequality, Trauma, Violence, Mental Health, White Supremacy, Identity, Political Participation, and Gender
Political Geography:
Pakistan, Africa, South Asia, Indonesia, Middle East, Libya, North Africa, Sweden, Jordan, Somalia, Southeast Asia, Cameroon, and United States of America

16. The Impact of the Covid-19 Pandemic on Public School Education

Author:
Accountability Initiative
Publication Date:
01-2021
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Centre for Policy Research, India
Abstract:
This brief presents some of the key effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on India’s public school education, focussing specifically on children. It begins with a discussion of the pre-pandemic status of school education and key policy shifts over the past few years, and provides an overview of the principal issues arising from the pandemic and the resulting school closures. It then offers potential policy suggestions to address these challenges, and thereby ensuring quality education to all children.
Topic:
Education, Health, Children, and COVID-19
Political Geography:
South Asia and India

17. Open Government in Education: Learning from Social Audits in India

Author:
Kiran Bhatty
Publication Date:
06-2021
Content Type:
Case Study
Institution:
Centre for Policy Research, India
Abstract:
This study looks at the first social audit of education undertaken in India, under the aegis of the National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR). It was conducted as a pilot project across ten states of India. Social auditing is a powerful method for increasing open government, which relies on citizens as the primary agents. It is built on the principle that information increases engagement of citizens and helps to establish their priorities. Based on this, citizens can act as effective monitors of their entitlements.The study reviews two of the ten sites where social auditing has been implemented to learn from the different stakeholders what the achievements and challenges were. It argues that for such citizen-led monitoring to take place, tools and processes of engagement, as well as platforms for citizen-government interaction, are required. These are the elements that the social audit methodology strives to provide. In addition, as many communities may not be equipped to initiate and sustain such processes, a facilitating organization or agency is necessary, at least in the initial period, before social auditing can be institutionalized. In order to close the feedback loop, follow-up with the government is also essential. The analysis underscores the importance of citizens having direct access to information and to platforms that allow them to dialogue with the State. It demonstrates that accountability can be established through such processes and that they can lead to empowerment of marginalised social groups, such as women. However, they require investment in time and resources to get started and then to keep on going. A commitment from government agencies to pursue strategies that facilitate access to information and citizen engagement, as well as provide follow-up are, therefore, the core requisites for a successful social audit. At the same time, a non-confrontational approach that favours building bridges and working collaboratively with government actors also plays an important role in making social audits work.
Topic:
Education, Government, Accountability, Audit, Civic Engagement, and Monitoring
Political Geography:
South Asia and India

18. Integrated Child Development Services

Author:
Ritwik Shukla, Sharad Pandey, and Avani Kapur
Publication Date:
02-2021
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Centre for Policy Research, India
Abstract:
Integrated Child Development Services is Government of India’s (GoI’s) flagship programme aimed at providing basic education, health, and nutrition services for early childhood development. It has now been combined with POSHAN Abhiyaan to form Saksham Anganwadi and POSHAN 2.0. Against the backdrop of the COVID-19 pandemic, this brief uses government data to analyse: Required funds, allocations, and releases; Changes in coverage and service delivery due to the COVID-19 pandemic; Human resources; and Malnutrition status
Topic:
Education, Health, Budget, Social Services, COVID-19, and Child Development
Political Geography:
South Asia and India

19. De-Radicalization through Education Reforms: Comparative Analysis of Closed-Book and Open Book Examination Regime

Author:
Farhan Akhtar
Publication Date:
07-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Journal of Political Studies
Institution:
Department of Political Science, University of the Punjab
Abstract:
The education system in Pakistan, especially its closed-book examination regime, is the legacy of the British Raj dating back to 1857. The examination style of the University of London was introduced in the subcontinent for native students at the high school level to promote English and with an incentive of preference in government jobs. Since the creation of Pakistan, the closed-book examination system, instead of evolving with the changing requirements, got further strengthened where it was also introduced in the higher education in the country. A closed-book examination system promotes rote learning and memorization among the students to fetch good grades. The entire purpose of education becomes questionable when student's efficacy and intellect are assessed in the light of marks attained. The GAP culture of educational institutions is detrimental to the students and society alike. Education in itself has shrunk to passing the exams for promotion to the next level or attaining jobs rather than developing the personalities and transforming the youth into thinking minds and effective, contributing members of the society. Education in Pakistan is merely a test of memory where those with good memory skills who can reproduce the textbooks as verbatim attain good marks and are considered educated and knowledgeable, and failures are discarded from the society. Closed-book examinations are at a tangent to critical, reflective, and creative thinking skills. The analytical abilities of the students of this exam regime are at its lowest ebb. In order to address the menace of extremism, violence, increasing intolerance, and exclusivity in the society, there is a need to find an alternate in the shape of an open-book examination regime that will promote critical, reflective, and problem-solving skills among the youth. Open-book exams assess the true analytical skills of the students, and since this type of examination can only be attempted by students with conceptual clarity and enhanced understanding instead of parroting and rote learning.
Topic:
Education, Pedagogy, Political Extremism, Critical Thinking, and Intolerance
Political Geography:
Pakistan and South Asia

20. The Local Roots of Chinese Engagement in Pakistan

Author:
Muhammad Tayyab Safdar
Publication Date:
06-2021
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
Abstract:
China has deepened its economic engagement with Pakistan through elite-centered negotiations over the routes and projects of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). But elites are not the whole story: China has made inroads beyond Pakistan’s political elites with a broader array of local stakeholders in the country’s education, media, and energy sectors. Pull factors in each of these areas are giving local Pakistani actors incentives to develop closer relationships with Chinese actors. In education, China’s status as a rising global power and the promise of future economic returns have driven ever more Pakistanis to learn Mandarin and opt to study abroad in China. In the media sector, the financial pressures facing Pakistan’s private media houses have contributed to increasing domestic buy-in for news sharing agreements with Chinese media organizations. In the power sector, the lack of alternative sources of external funding for local Pakistani conglomerates has resulted in the emergence of joint ventures on electricity generation projects with large Chinese state-owned enterprises (SOEs). At the same time, Chinese government policies are serving as push factors to incentivize Chinese actors to expand their interactions in different segments of Pakistani society. For example, China has opened and sponsors Confucius Institutes and classrooms across Pakistan, while also offering scholarships to Pakistani students interested in studying in China. As Chinese firms have expanded their presence in Pakistan, they have worked with local universities to adapt to local customs and cultural and religious values. In media circles, stakeholders like China’s Xinhua News Agency have worked with local Pakistani media outlets to localize information dissemination and shape Pakistani public opinion on important international issues in ways that are in sync with Beijing’s worldview. And Chinese investment in Pakistan’s power sector is aligned with Chinese SOEs’ Go Global strategy and the expansion of these firms’ operations in overseas markets as part of the BRI. China’s engagement with Pakistani political, social, and economic institutions comes in response to local conditions. By adapting to these conditions and working through local institutions and actors, a host of Chinese actors are poised to continue deepening their interactions with different parts of Pakistani society.
Topic:
Education, Partnerships, Media, Economy, and Engagement
Political Geography:
Pakistan, China, South Asia, and Asia