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121. Energy and Natural Resources in the Argentina-China Relationship: Interests, Cooperation and Challenges

Author:
Julian Bilmes
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
AUSTRAL: Brazilian Journal of Strategy International Relations
Institution:
Postgraduate Program in International Strategic Studies, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Abstract:
The aim of this article is to analyze the outstanding role that energy and natural resources play in the increasing relationship between China and Argentina to inquire what type of development is outlined. These topics have a central role in terms of the bilateral trade balance, investment, funding and around cooperation mechanisms, due to Argentine bet to build new export complexes and Chinese needs for its energy and supply security. Oil and gas, mining and different type of energy generation are analyzed: nuclear, hydroelectric, solar and wind, highlighting Chinese firms positioning as well as bilateral cooperation agreements, its obstacles and challenges
Topic:
Bilateral Relations, Natural Resources, Trade, and Energy
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Argentina, and South America

122. Brazil-China Relations Under Lula and Bolsonaro: Rapprochement and Distancing Through Discourse

Author:
Paulo Afonso Brardo Duarte and Lucas Braga Dutra
Publication Date:
02-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
AUSTRAL: Brazilian Journal of Strategy International Relations
Institution:
Postgraduate Program in International Strategic Studies, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Abstract:
This article aims to provide a comparative analysis of Sino-Brazilian relations from the Brazilian perspective during the presidencies of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and Jair Messias Bolsonaro. This analysis is based on the examination of speeches made by both presidents during their respective terms. Drawing on the French tradition of Discourse Analysis, the study seeks to comprehend how the two presidents behaved in the context of the Brazil-China relationship throughout their respective terms. This study is based on the hypothesis that there was a desire to bring the relationship between the two countries closer during Lula's administration and an attempt to distance it, at least in President Bolsonaro's informal speeches, which was not, however, corroborated by his formal speeches.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Bilateral Relations, Jair Bolsonaro, Discourse, and Lula da Silva
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Brazil, and South America

123. Brazil-China Relations: A Three-Decade Analysis of Knowledge Diplomacy (1994–2024)

Author:
Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Francisco Jose Leandro, and Yichao Li
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional (RBPI)
Institution:
Instituto Brasileiro de Relações Internacionais (IBRI)
Abstract:
China’s rise has influenced global affairs, including its relations with Brazil. This study explores knowledge diplomacy - academic collaborations forming innovation networks that complement traditional state diplomacy. Marking 30 years of strategic partnership (1993-2023) and 50 years of Sino-Brazilian diplomatic relations (1974-2024), the research poses and addresses the following question: “To what extent does knowledge diplomacy manifest in Brazil–China bilateral relations?”. Using a systematic literature review and social network analysis, the findings indicate that knowledge diplomacy between Brazil and China remains in its nascent stages. Only three initiatives related to the co-production of scientific knowledge were identified, involving a total of six researchers from both countries. Despite the comprehensiveness of the analysis, the results reveal that state-level, proactive engagement between higher education institutions in Brazil and China has remained superficial throughout the three decades under examination.
Topic:
Diplomacy, Bilateral Relations, Soft Power, Higher Education, Social Networks, Network Analysis, and Strategic Partnerships
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Brazil, and South America

124. Open-access Challenging Dollar Dominance? How Brazil Responds to RMB Internationalization

Author:
Thaís Araripe, Luiza Peruffo, and Andre Moreira Cunha
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional (RBPI)
Institution:
Instituto Brasileiro de Relações Internacionais (IBRI)
Abstract:
This article explores the role of China’s currency, the renminbi (RMB), in Brazil, analyzing how the country positions itself in the shift toward alternative currencies to the U.S. dollar amidst changing global monetary power. It addresses three key questions: How widely is the RMB used in Brazil’s economy? What institutional measures support RMB adoption in Brazil? And what are the implications of this engagement for Brazil’s role in the international monetary and financial system? Findings indicate a modest but growing RMB integration in Brazil. Rather than embarking on a de-dollarization process, Brazil appears to be employing an incremental approach – one that leverages selective institutional measures to diversify its financial risks while preserving its strategic ties with the dominant global currency.
Topic:
Bilateral Relations, Developing World, Economy, Currency, Internationalization, De-Dollarization, International Monetary and Financial System, and Economic Sovereignty
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Brazil, and South America

125. Too Big to Dock: Brazil-China Iron Trade and the Valemax Vessels Crisis

Author:
Victor Thives
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional (RBPI)
Institution:
Instituto Brasileiro de Relações Internacionais (IBRI)
Abstract:
This article analyzes the Valemax crisis to explore how regulatory barriers and domestic interests shape trade. When the Valemax, vessels owned by Brazil’s giant mining company Vale, were barred from Chinese ports, allegedly due to safety concerns, a diplomatic and commercial impasse emerged. Drawing on the Bureaucratic Politics Model, the study shows how Brazilian state agencies coordinated to defend Vale’s interests, while China protected its shipping sector. The eventual resolution, by transferring ship ownership to Chinese State Owned Enterprises (SOEs), illustrates how foreign firms must adapt to China’s political economy. The case highlights the influence of large companies on foreign policy and the complexities of commercial diplomacy in asymmetric economic relationships.
Topic:
Diplomacy, Bilateral Relations, Regulation, Economy, Trade, Bureaucracy, and State-Owned Enterprises
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Brazil, and South America

126. The Third World Imperative: How Brazil-China Relations Emerge from the Aftershock of Richard Nixon’s Latin American Foreign Policy

Author:
Pablo Muñoz
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional (RBPI)
Institution:
Instituto Brasileiro de Relações Internacionais (IBRI)
Abstract:
This article analyzes the emergence of Brazil-China relations in the context of Richard Nixon’s foreign policy toward Latin America. It examines how American perceptions of Brazil as a potential competitor, and the geopolitical economic maneuvers of the Nixon administration influenced Brazil’s foreign policy decisions. The article highlights Brazil’s growing nationalism and its engagement with the Third World, including economic interactions with the Soviet Union and the eventual establishment of relations with mainland China. Ultimately, it argues that U.S. foreign policy played a significant role in shaping Brazil’s understanding of its Third World imperative, paving the way for closer relations with China that continue to this day.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Economics, Nationalism, Third World, and Dictatorship
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Brazil, South America, North America, and United States of America

127. Defining the Belt and Road: How Ideas and Interests Shaped Argentina’s Approach to the Initiative

Author:
Zara C. Albright
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional (RBPI)
Institution:
Instituto Brasileiro de Relações Internacionais (IBRI)
Abstract:
How do ideas and identities affect how countries evaluate joining China’s Belt and Road Initiative? This article employs process tracing to analyze Argentina’s negotiations prior to its accession in February 2022. Argentina is a crucial case to explain because both the Macri and Fernández governments faced similar material benefits of infrastructure finance. However, the Macri government defined the BRI as a form of alignment with China, while the Fernández government interpreted it as South-South cooperation and autonomy from Western-led financial institutions. These findings show that developing countries evaluate both the material and symbolic costs and benefits of the BRI.
Topic:
International Relations, Finance, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), and Development Finance
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Argentina, and South America

128. Fairness and Safety for Asylum Seekers: Assessing the “Remain in Mexico” (MPP) Policy

Author:
Harrison Fintz, Abigail Leibowitz, and Ila Prabhuram
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Liechtenstein Institute on Self-Determination, Princeton University
Abstract:
This brief evaluates the MPP program through an ethical lens emphasizing safety, fairness, due process, and burden sharing. It proposes concrete reforms for any future iteration: enforcement guidelines, safety reporting, expedited processing, legal support, and cross-border cooperation.
Topic:
International Cooperation, Borders, Immigration Policy, and Asylum Seekers
Political Geography:
South America, North America, Mexico, and United States of America

129. Two US policy options for Venezuela: Shaping reform vs. ‘maximum pressure’ toward regime collapse

Author:
Venezuela Solutions Group
Publication Date:
07-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Atlantic Council
Abstract:
The first Trump administration drafted a framework for encouraging a democratic transition in Venezuela; with a few updates, it represents one policy path the second Trump administration could take. Nicolas Maduro’s recent promotion of a longtime rival may be a sign of how few friends he has left, raising the possibility that he may be more susceptible to the second option: a “maximum pressure” campaign. Whether Washington opts for incentives or a hard line, the goal should be to keep presenting dilemmas that make a democratic transition more appealing than the status quo.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Human Rights, Oil, Politics, Sanctions, Reform, Geopolitics, Energy, and Democratic Transitions
Political Geography:
South America, Latin America, Venezuela, North America, and United States of America

130. Climate-Nature Synergies: From local to global

Author:
Igarapé Institute
Publication Date:
11-2025
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Igarapé Institute
Abstract:
Climate change and biodiversity loss are distinct phenomena, yet deeply interconnected, with mutual impacts. The Amazon Basin is a powerful example of this interdependence, increasingly threatened by deforestation and the direct effects of environmental degradation. The symbiotic relationship between the climate and biodiversity crises affects not only the Amazon but also other regions of the planet, revealing that their impacts — and, above all, their solutions — are inseparable. Addressing both crises requires integrated, coordinated, and systemic measures. It is in this context that the Climate–Nature Synergies Agenda emerges — an effort to promote greater coherence between actions to confront the climate crisis and protect biodiversity, ensuring ecosystem integrity, maximizing benefits, and minimizing trade-offs. This effort is, by definition, multilevel and multidimensional, aimed at protecting people, climate, and nature across different scales — from local to global. In Climate–Nature Synergies: From Local to Global, the Igarapé Institute draws on the Brazilian context and the Amazon Basin to explore the opportunities and challenges of fostering dialogue between the climate and nature agendas. The study maps ongoing programs and policies that already demonstrate integrated approaches to climate and biodiversity, both in Brazil and in other Amazon countries. By mapping these initiatives, we highlight the importance of strengthening synergies at multiple levels — national, regional, and global. We also show how existing efforts can catalyze new technical, political, and financial partnerships, enhancing the robustness of solutions being tested in Brazil and across the Amazon Basin, while promoting the exchange of experiences among Amazonian countries and across basins, amid a growing global mobilization for the conservation of tropical forests.
Topic:
Climate Change, Environment, International Cooperation, Governance, Conservation, Nature, Biodiversity, and Deforestation
Political Geography:
Brazil, South America, and Amazon Basin

131. Does the Enforcement of Labor Regulations Reduce Informality? The Case of Peru

Author:
Maria Florencia Pinto, Yulia Valdivia Rivera, and Hernan Winkler
Publication Date:
08-2025
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Center for Distributive, Labor and Social Studies (CEDLAS)
Abstract:
This article examines the effects of strengthened labor regulation enforcement on labor market outcomes in Peru from 2010 to 2019. In 2013, the Peruvian government established a national labor inspection agency, which was progressively rolled out nationwide. This reform led to a substantial increase in the frequency and severity of fines imposed on formal firms. Despite this heightened enforcement, our analysis using extended two-way fixed effects models finds no significant effects on overall employment levels. Moreover, there is no evidence of changes along either the intensive margin—informal employment within formal firms—or the extensive margin—the share of employment in informal firms. These findings suggest that increased enforcement of labor regulations did not lead to measurable shifts in labor informality or employment outcomes during this period.
Topic:
Labor Issues, Regulation, Informal Economy, Inspection, Enforcement, and Fines
Political Geography:
South America and Peru

132. Effects of Immigration on Native Learning: The Case of the Venezuelan Crisis

Author:
Nicolás Irazoque Sillerico
Publication Date:
08-2025
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Center for Distributive, Labor and Social Studies (CEDLAS)
Abstract:
This paper provides the first estimate of the impact of the Venezuelan exodus on Colombian students’ learning. To identify the impact, I use the reopening of the ColombianVenezuelan border in 2016 as a natural experiment and propose a differences-in-differences design. The results indicate that, on average, native high school students exposed to immigrants on the schools experience a decrease of 1.8% of a standard deviation in their academic performance and the effect is persistent for the first four years and tends to zero after that. A possible mechanism for this negative effect is that teachers allocate class time to assist lower-achieving Venezuelans. This effect becomes insignificant when the concentration of immigrants is higher. The negative effect is larger for women, for Colombians with high achievement, with highly educated mothers, and for natives who attend schools with high average scores and a high concentration of educated mothers.
Topic:
Education, Immigration, Children, and Peer Effects
Political Geography:
South America and Venezuela

133. Establishing Parental Equality in Peru – Fathers’ Rights in Child Registration without Maternal Details

Author:
Helena-Ulrike Marambio
Publication Date:
08-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Statelessness & Citizenship Review
Institution:
Peter McMullin Centre on Statelessness, Melbourne Law School
Abstract:
In a landmark ruling in September 2023, the Peruvian Constitutional Tribunal(‘Tribunal’)1ordered the National Registry of Identification and Civil Status (‘National Registry’)2to register twins under their father’s surnames3and grant them Peruvian citizenship.4The Tribunal also urged the Congress of Peru (‘Congress’)to amend the Peruvian Civil Code of 1984 (‘Civil Code’),5as it discriminates against single, unmarried fathers by requiringthe inclusion of the mother’s surnames for the issuance of a birth certificate—a requirement not imposed on mothers.6This ruling is significant for several reasons. First, it highlights a little discussed form of sex-based discrimination, namely the unequal treatment of single,unmarried fathers in birth registration. Most of the time, it is mothers who encounter discrimination in registration procedures.7Second, it underscores a broader challenge across countries’national legislations to recognise equal parental rights, irrespective of a parent’s sex or civil status.8Third, in Peru’s gradually evolving family landscape, the ruling exposes the Civil Code’s incompatibility with contemporary realities,and signals the need for broader legislative and policy reforms that shift from a traditional family model to more diverse family structures.9A gap pointed out by this caseis the lack of legal regulation concerning surrogacy.10Beyond establishing parental equality, the ruling reinforces Peru’s international obligation to ensure that a child’s rightsto birth registration, identity and citizenshipare protected. Thisobligationisparticularly critical for children of single, unmarried or gay biological fathers when the mother’s identity is not revealed,asthiscould result in the child’s lack of legal identity in the country as demonstrated in this case, or other additional inequalities.
Topic:
Citizenship, Equality, Parenthood, Statelessness, and Sex-Based Discrimination
Political Geography:
South America and Peru

134. Retreat of the Left: Prospective Policies of Bolivia’s New President

Author:
FARAS
Publication Date:
11-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Future for Advanced Research and Studies (FARAS)
Abstract:
In a sudden and unexpected turn, Rodrigo Paz, the Christian Democratic Party (center-right) candidate and member of the Senate, won Bolivia’s presidential election on October 19, 2025, securing 54.5% of the vote against 45.5% for his rival, Jorge “Tuto” Quiroga, the former right-wing president and candidate of the Alianza Libre (Free Alliance) coalition. The results, announced after more than 97% of ballots were counted, were confirmed by the country’s Supreme Electoral Court. Paz is set to assume office on November 8, 2025, succeeding outgoing president Luis Arce, who chose not to seek re-election after five years in power. His victory marks the beginning of a new chapter in Bolivian politics, long dominated by leftist slogans and the legacy of the Movement for Socialism (MAS)—the party that has governed the country since 2006 under former president Evo Morales and his allies. Despite this decisive win, the road ahead for Paz is likely to be challenging. He faces formidable obstacles that will test both his campaign promises and his ability to govern in a deeply polarized environment.
Topic:
Elections, Economy, Domestic Politics, and Rodrigo Paz
Political Geography:
South America and Bolivia

135. Enhancing Quinoa Yields in the Southern Altiplano of Bolivia: An Integrated Agronomic and Economic Approach

Author:
Óscar Colque, Alejandro Herrera, and Beatriz Muriel
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Institute for Advanced Development Studies (INESAD)
Abstract:
Quinoa production in Bolivia’s southern Altiplano region takes place under some of the most severe agroecological conditions in the Andes. These include extreme altitude, scarce and variable rainfall, frequent frost, strong winds, and, more recently, widespread soil degradation. Organic soil amendments, such as compost, are promoted to restore soil fertility and improve productivity in certified quinoa systems. However, evidence on their effectiveness under real smallholder farming conditions is limited because existing studies often fail to distinguish agronomic potential from realized impacts shaped by environmental and management constraints. This paper addresses this gap by integrating agronomic diagnostics, intervention design, controlled validation, and impact evaluation within a unified framework. First, the study conducts a detailed soil analysis to identify constraints in certified production plots. Next, a compost intervention is designed and validated under controlled conditions to establish agronomic feasibility and potential. Then, a pilot intervention in randomly selected plots estimates the effects of the intervention under real cultivation conditions, including climatic variability, weed pressure, wind exposure, and varied management intensity. The results show that compost application increases quinoa productivity on average, but realized impacts vary with environmental exposure and management practices. Climatic stress, weed competition, wind intensity, and plot’s owner presence influence how much the intervention’s potential translates into observed outcomes. Methodologically, the study shows how combining agronomic validation with causal inference principles improves the interpretation and policy relevance of evidence in high-risk agroecological settings.
Topic:
Economics, Quinoa, Agroecology, Crop Yields, Agronomics, and Soil Fertility
Political Geography:
South America and Bolivia

136. Barriers to Pension Affiliation in Bolivia: Evidence on Accessibility, Affordability, and Acceptability

Author:
Beatriz Muriel H., Alejandro Herrera J., and María C. Lenis A.
Publication Date:
11-2025
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Institute for Advanced Development Studies (INESAD)
Abstract:
This paper uses a multidimensional framework that incorporates constraints of accessibility, affordability, and acceptability to examine the determinants of effective access to the contributory component of Bolivia’s pension system. Using nationally representative household surveys from 2005 and 2019, we evaluate the influence of labor-market segmentation, financial capacity, informational barriers, and sociocultural factors on workers’ likelihood of affiliation. To address key empirical challenges, including nonlinearity, non-random selection into employment, and perfect or near-perfect prediction, we estimate Probit, Heckprobit, and Firth–Logit models and compute gender-specific average marginal effects. The results indicate persistent structural barriers across periods and settings. Self-employment, unpaid work, and low or unstable earnings consistently reduce affiliation. Informational constraints and distrust were decisive in 2005, while digital access became a critical determinant by 2019. Sociocultural factors, particularly Indigenous identity, also emerged as significant acceptability constraints in the later period. Gender differences in affiliation mainly reflect disparities in employment status, income, and access to information, rather than heterogeneous behavioral responses. Overall, the findings underscore the need for integrated policies that address informational gaps, financial constraints, and labor-market segmentation to bolster access to the contributory component of Bolivia’s pension system.
Topic:
Pension, Labor Market, Affordability, Gender, Informality, Social Protection, and Access Barriers
Political Geography:
South America and Bolivia

137. Community and Nature-Based Supply Chains: Moving Beyond Commoditization to the Green Transition

Author:
Aurelia Figueroa
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Brown Journal of World Affairs
Institution:
Brown Journal of World Affairs
Abstract:
It was the dry season in Colombia, so the path in the sprawling forest surround- ing a mine site in Segovia, Antioquia could be traversed. An SUV plodded along the winding road of packed, fertile soil toward the nearby community of Vereda El Pescado. Although only 10 kilometers away, the journey would take over an hour as the SUV’s tires fell from one deep hole to another. The way continued until the SUV reached the home of a small number of families dispersed across the terrain. Parts of this natural arboreal fortress had been cleared for small-scale ag- ricultural development. The natural coverage it offered had made it a one-time home to factions of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). Reflective of this was the fact that many community members in Vereda El Pescado had themselves experienced the travails of Colombia’s long-standing conflicts. Among other things, this condition had resulted in forced migration. Some of the consequences of this include that community members were unable to complete education, or in some cases enter it, unable to establish a permanent residency and the stability to enroll in and complete related courses.
Topic:
Mining, Supply Chains, and Green Transition
Political Geography:
Colombia and South America

138. Non-violent Civil Resistance and Human (Im)mobility: the Regional Indigenous Council of Cauca (CRIC) in Defence of Ancestral Territory amid the Colombian Armed Conflict

Author:
Raquel Araújo de Jesus
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Contexto Internacional
Institution:
Institute of International Relations, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro
Abstract:
This article aims to analyse the strategic actions of the Regional Indigenous Council of Cauca (CRIC) in defence of ancestral territory in Colombia’s Pacific region, which has experienced an intensification of the armed conflict following the signing of the Peace Agreement between the Government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC-EP) in 2016. It is argued that the CRIC, established in the 1970s, acts to protect its communities from forced displacement, preventing their uprooting and thereby ensuring the pervivencia –both physical and cultural – of its peoples. To this end, the following theoretical and methodological steps are undertaken: first, a dialogue is established between the fields of forced migration and resistance studies, through the articulation of the analytical frameworks of crisis migration and non-violent civil resistance; next, primary data collected through a digital platform, alongside secondary data regarding CRIC’s actions in the department of Cauca, are analysed. The outcome is the development of the concept of ‘self-confinement’ as an act of non-violent civil resistance, collectively organised through the political agency of these subjects, as well as the creation of a short comic strip that seeks to articulate the argument above through a different language, in order to contribute to the democratisation of scientific knowledge.
Topic:
Mobility, Indigenous, Armed Conflict, Nonviolence, Forced Migration, and Civil Resistance
Political Geography:
Colombia and South America

139. War Memes and Brazilian National Politics

Author:
João Paulo Nicolini Gabriel, Viktor Chagas, and Helder Ferreira de Mendonça
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Contexto Internacional
Institution:
Institute of International Relations, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro
Abstract:
This article adopts the theoretical framework of memetic warfare and International Relations (IR), applying a qualitative, interpretive case study to a curated dataset of 192 memes circulated in pro-Bolsonaro WhatsApp groups in Brazil. These visual artefacts are examined as discursive tools that reframe global events - most notably the 2022 war in Ukraine - within national political cultures. The findings reveal how memes have been mobilised to construct political identities, reinforce authoritarian populist narratives, and disseminate disinformation. By analysing how international crises are appropriated to shape domestic discourse, the article contributes to IR by highlighting the role of digital media in political communication and opinion formation, particularly in the Global South.
Topic:
International Relations, Politics, Social Media, Memes, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:
Brazil and South America

140. “Condemned to Sacrifice” in the Shadow of Argentina’s Vaca Muerta

Author:
Patricia Rodríguez
Publication Date:
01-2024
Content Type:
Commentary and Analysis
Institution:
The North American Congress on Latin America (NACLA)
Abstract:
From Patagonia, an environmental activist discusses her community’s struggle against a new oil pipeline and the threats of expanding extractivism in their territory.
Topic:
Environment, Oil, Pipeline, and Activism
Political Geography:
Argentina, South America, and Patagonia