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201. Risky Configuration: China’s Footprint in Germany’s Technology Stack

Author:
Sharinee Jagtiani
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Special Report
Institution:
German Marshall Fund of the United States (GMFUS)
Abstract:
Germany—just like the EU as a whole—has recognized the strategic importance of reducing unilateral dependencies in digital technologies. In the face of geopolitical threats and economic uncertainty, the new German government has vowed to strengthen the country’s technological growth and resilience. Germany confronts a changing global order, in which it faces a growing threat from Russia while traditional security guarantees under the transatlantic alliance have weakened. While the threat from Russia dominates Berlin’s immediate strategic concerns, the growing alignment between Moscow and Beijing demands that this challenge cannot be viewed in isolation. As Germany recalibrates its national security posture from a peacetime orientation to one prepared for potential war, it is crucial to address the deepening strategic ties between Russia and the People’s Republic of China (PRC) as part of a broader, interconnected threat. The PRC’s growing dominance in the German technology landscape threatens both Germany’s national security and its long-term economic resilience. Germany’s new government should now make increased efforts to effectively implement its China strategy, especially in the technology sector. Reducing exposure to systemic risks and de-risking the technological ecosystem is an urgent economic need and should be a security priority. This analysis examines the digital footprint of PRC entities in Germany’s technology ecosystem. It applies a “tech stack” framework to assess this footprint and its associated risks across five technology layers: network infrastructure, data infrastructure, device, application, and governance. The report illustrates the PRC’s involvement within each layer, situates this engagement within the PRC’s broader strategic objectives and identifies key vulnerabilities that could undermine Germany’s security and competitiveness if left unaddressed.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Science and Technology, Infrastructure, and European Union
Political Geography:
China, Europe, Asia, and Germany

202. Europe Between the United States and China

Author:
Gesine Weber
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
German Marshall Fund of the United States (GMFUS)
Abstract:
Competition between the United States and China directly affects other players in the international system, and Europe is no exception. Since the United States is historically Europe’s closest ally, and the Indo-Pacific is becoming increasingly important to European strategy, the trajectory of the US-China relationship significantly impacts European security. However, what has changed under the second administration of US President Donald Trump is the volatility of the competition: Differing views and approaches within the US administration and uncertainty about Washington’s approach to China make it particularly challenging for Europe to carve out room to maneuver as a security actor.
Topic:
Science and Technology, European Union, Innovation, Transatlantic Relations, and Defense Cooperation
Political Geography:
China, Europe, United States of America, and Indo-Pacific

203. The New Political Economy of Supply: resources, rare earths and finance

Author:
Philip Andrews-Speed
Publication Date:
08-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
LSE IDEAS
Abstract:
China is the dominant player in the global low-carbon energy transition in two respects: it has deployed the largest fleet of low-carbon electricity generation capacity in the world, and it dominates several international supply chains for clean energy minerals, metals and equipment. China has installed a massive amount of infrastructure for both solar and wind energy since 2010. The total capacity reached 1,300 GW by the end of 2024, which is more than 45% of the global total. Investment in hydro power and nuclear power also continues. These non-fossil fuels accounted for about 40% of the nation’s power generation in 2024. At the same time, the country has built up the world’s largest electric vehicle industry and is likely to take the lead in the manufacture and use of green hydrogen. This success has been built upon several foundations. Most important are the various policies of central and local government that supported investment and innovation along the clean energy supply chains over two decades or more. In the early days, this relied on technology transfer from abroad. More recently, the development of technology and manufacturing clusters have assisted scaling up and innovation, all supported by abundant and skilled human capital (Hove, 2024). All this adds credibility to Xi Jinping’s pledge to peak carbon emissions by 2030 and ‘strive for’ carbon neutrality by 2060. However, energy and fossil fuel consumption are still rising, as are carbon emissions. Coal is the main culprit as the country has large reserves, and the government sees coal as providing the foundation for energy security. Coal accounted for about 55% of power generation in 2024 and remains an important fuel in some industries. The continued increase in the use of coal will result in the peak of carbon emissions being significantly higher than might have been projected ten years ago. The good news is that the declining rate of GDP growth combined with the increasing electrification of the economy may result in emissions peaking in the next two-to-three years.
Topic:
Political Economy, Natural Resources, Finance, Carbon Emissions, Rare earth elements (REEs), and Energy Transition
Political Geography:
China and Asia

204. Unsolicited Thoughts on How the New Administration Can Improve American Diplomacy

Author:
Raymond F. Smith
Publication Date:
02-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
American Diplomacy
Institution:
American Diplomacy
Abstract:
A country’s political leadership establishes its foreign policy goals, and its diplomatic service works to achieve them. Ideally, a country’s fundamental foreign policy goals should be so clear and compelling that they transcend specific administrations and provide enduring guidelines for carrying out the work of diplomacy. Previous post-Cold War administrations have made half-hearted, but ultimately unsuccessful efforts to do this. The new administration may want to consider these three strategic objectives: 1) create a more stable international system; 2) avoid an alliance between China and Russia; 3) decrease the likelihood of a nuclear war. These objectives are clear, compelling, and enduring. The benefits of any system adhere disproportionately to those at the top of the system. Since we are at the top of the current international system, no one has a greater interest in its stability than we do. An alliance between the other nuclear superpower and the other economic superpower would represent a clear and present danger to our preeminence. And in all likelihood, we’d all be dead after a major nuclear war. A diplomacy aimed at achieving these objectives should include: 1) prioritizing US interests; 2) talking less and listening more; and 3) leading by example.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Diplomacy, Leadership, Strategic Interests, and International System
Political Geography:
Russia, China, North America, and United States of America

205. India: Strategic Partner or Global Challenger?

Author:
Keith McCormick
Publication Date:
02-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
American Diplomacy
Institution:
American Diplomacy
Abstract:
This article provides the highlights of the discussions at this year’s DACOR (Diplomatic and Consular Officers Retired) conference on how the US should deal with a rising India. The participants—academics, retired diplomats, and current government officials—participated on the basis of no attribution. The three panels discussed whether India can be a new strategic partner for the US in containing China; how the US. should respond to the Modi government’s increasing use of Hindu chauvinism to undermine democracy and tolerance; and what is ahead for India’s economy, including whether it will become the leader of the Global South in challenging the current, Western-dominated international trading order.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Diplomacy, Economy, Trade, and Strategic Partnerships
Political Geography:
China, South Asia, and India

206. Mission Critical: Securing America’s Critical Minerals

Author:
Institute for the Study of Diplomacy Working Group
Publication Date:
04-2025
Content Type:
Special Report
Institution:
Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University
Abstract:
The United States and its allies and partners face a two-pronged crisis. Increases in global temperatures call for the rapid expansion of critical mineral infrastructure—to include mines and refinement—if we hope to deploy the technology needed to avoid the worst effects of climate change. Meanwhile, the United States’ primary geopolitical adversary has obtained a near-monopoly position in the supply of most of these minerals. Heavy use of certain minerals in our defense-industrial base further underscores the need to reduce reliance on People’s Republic of China (PRC) supplies. Both our climate and our national security demand concerted efforts to wean us away from fossil fuels and the PRC’s market power. In the spring of 2024, the Institute for the Study of Diplomacy (ISD) convened a New Global Commons working group over two meetings titled “Mission Critical: Securing America’s Critical Minerals.” Working group participants represented academia, think tanks, government, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and the private sector, bringing a broad range of experience and global perspectives to the discussions. Participants discussed definitions of critical minerals and the need for a successful green energy transition to support digital technology and fulfill 21st-century defense needs. Participants weighed the complexity of overlapping issues and how the United States and its partners might best effectively coordinate and balance these issues.
Topic:
National Security, Natural Resources, Infrastructure, Geopolitics, Mining, Energy, Green Transition, and Critical Minerals
Political Geography:
China, North America, and United States of America

207. Building on Momentum in U.S.-Turkey Relations

Author:
Soner Cagaptay
Publication Date:
02-2025
Content Type:
Special Report
Institution:
The Washington Institute for Near East Policy
Abstract:
The two leaders can use their personal rapport to solve bilateral and regional problems, but they will also face tough challenges in matters such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and dealings with China. In the second in a series of TRANSITION 2025 memos, Soner Cagaptay explores areas for U.S. partnership with Turkey in the Middle East and beyond. After a decade of malaise, relations between the two countries have lately recovered thanks to Turkish support for Sweden’s accession to NATO, granted in return for permission to buy U.S. F-16 fighter jets. The personal magnetism between President Trump and his counterpart, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, could smooth the way for further cooperation in military and economic areas, and also potentially help the new U.S. administration in Ukraine and Syria. But complex challenges remain, relating not only to the Syrian conflict—where Ankara and Washington backed different actors—but also to dealings with China and affinities in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. MIDDLE EAST POLICY TRANSITION 2025 by Washington Institute experts address challenges and opportunities for the Trump-Vance administration during a period of extraordinary change in the Middle East. A primary challenge will be countering Iran’s march toward the bomb. Also critical will be determining a sustainable U.S. force posture in the region and updating America’s counterterrorism mission. Opportunities, meanwhile, are suddenly ample after blows to the “axis of resistance” and include the imperative to forge a better relationship with Turkey, which is set to be an influential player in post-Assad Syria.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Bilateral Relations, Israeli–Palestinian Conflict, and Regional Security
Political Geography:
China, Turkey, Middle East, North America, and United States of America

208. Saudi Public Opinion in a Changing Middle East: Great Powers, the Gaza War, Pathways for the Kingdom

Author:
Catherine Cleveland
Publication Date:
08-2025
Content Type:
Special Report
Institution:
The Washington Institute for Near East Policy
Abstract:
China and Russia get higher marks than the United States, and Israel normalization is on hold—but respondents view Hamas negatively, want Arab involvement in the peace process, and increasingly support moderate interpretations of Islam. Recent polling in Saudi Arabia offers reasons for concern as well as optimism regarding U.S. interests. On the downside, Saudi respondents are more likely to prioritize good relations with China or Russia as opposed to America, despite a history of U.S.-Saudi strategic ties. Likewise, enthusiasm for Israel-Saudi normalization has fallen from already-low levels amid the Gaza war, although support is slightly higher for business links. More encouragingly, respondents express negative views about Hamas, growing support for an Arab role in Israeli-Palestinian peacemaking, and increasing sympathy for moderate interpretations of Islam, mirroring the trajectory of Riyadh’s official rhetoric. In this Policy Note, polling expert Catherine Cleveland offers thought-provoking analysis of surveys taken shortly before Israel’s twelve-day war with Iran. U.S. policymakers can chart a productive course, she explains, by first taking an honest look at Saudi public skepticism of bilateral ties and then promoting initiatives more likely to earn support.
Topic:
Public Opinion, Normalization, Hamas, Regional Politics, and Great Powers
Political Geography:
Russia, China, Palestine, Gaza, Saudi Arabia, and United States of America

209. Here’s How State Department Cuts Would Impede U.S. Policy in the Middle East

Author:
Ben Fishman and Elizabeth Surman
Publication Date:
07-2025
Content Type:
Commentary and Analysis
Institution:
The Washington Institute for Near East Policy
Abstract:
The Trump administration’s budget cuts, intended to make America “safer, stronger, and more prosperous,” could wind up harming U.S. interests in the region while strengthening Russian and Chinese media warfare. At a time when the Middle East needs additional help managing the fallout from the war with Iran, the extreme State Department budget cuts initiated by the Trump administration are especially ill-timed. By cutting funds to partners who combat Iran’s most dangerous regional proxies, the administration risks enabling a faster rehabilitation of Tehran’s “axis of resistance.” Other cuts would limit Washington’s ability to provide lifesaving humanitarian assistance to Yemen, constrain efforts to reach the Iranian people, and cede ground to China and Russia in the information wars—one of the many negative repercussions of eliminating a vital network like Voice of America (VOA). The Senate has until July 18 to object to these cuts because the administration submitted its budget by means of a rescission bill, a rarely used procedure that gives Congress a limited period to respond to the administration’s proposal before it takes effect.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Strategic Interests, State Department, and Humanitarian Assistance
Political Geography:
Russia, China, Middle East, and United States of America

210. Militias Assist PRC-Based Ventures Mining Rare Earth Elements in Myanmar

Author:
Khandakar Tahmid Rejwan
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
The Jamestown Foundation
Abstract:
People’s Republic of China (PRC)-based firms are expanding rare-earth mining in Myanmar’s Shan and Kachin States by partnering with militias that lease mines, provide security, and tax exports. Satellite imagery shows a rapid increase in rare earth elements (REE) sites since 2015, turning militia-held enclaves into major suppliers of dysprosium, terbium, and other critical minerals for the PRC. As U.S.–PRC competition intensifies, Myanmar’s fragmented sovereignty enables armed groups with ties to Beijing to shape REE supply chains, complicating potential U.S. and Indian efforts to source Burmese minerals.
Topic:
Sovereignty, Natural Resources, Strategic Competition, Militias, Supply Chains, and Rare earth elements (REEs)
Political Geography:
China, Southeast Asia, Myanmar, and United States of America

211. How Trump’s Foreign Policy May Hurt US Interests in Southeast Asia

Author:
Aristyo Rizka Darmawan
Publication Date:
02-2025
Content Type:
Commentary and Analysis
Institution:
Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA)
Abstract:
Donald Trump’s neglect of Southeast Asia, coupled with controversial foreign policy decisions like his Gaza proposal and the abolishment of USAID, is eroding US credibility and trust in the region. As ASEAN states seek alternative partnerships with middle powers and China capitalises on Washington’s missteps, America risks losing its strategic influence in the Indo-Pacific
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Donald Trump, USAID, ASEAN, Strategic Interests, and Middle Powers
Political Geography:
China, Southeast Asia, United States of America, and Indo-Pacific

212. How Does China’s Rising Defence Budget Affect India?

Author:
Neeraj Singh Manhas
Publication Date:
03-2025
Content Type:
Commentary and Analysis
Institution:
Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA)
Abstract:
China’s 2025 defence budget increased by 7.2%, totalling $245 billion, continuing military modernisation under Xi Jinping. Over the past decade, spending has doubled, focusing on advanced tech. This escalates challenges for India in border security and regional balance.
Topic:
Modernization, Xi Jinping, Defense Spending, and Military
Political Geography:
China, South Asia, India, and Asia

213. China’s Long Game in Iran’s Short War

Author:
Pierre Pahlavi
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Commentary and Analysis
Institution:
Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA)
Abstract:
Following the twelve-day Iran-Israel war in June 2025, China has quietly accelerated its strategic partnership with a weakened Islamic Republic through renewed infrastructure commitments, expanded technological cooperation, and deepened diplomatic alignment. This calculated entrenchment represents Beijing’s broader ambition to reshape the post-American architecture of influence across Eurasia, potentially shifting the future of Middle Eastern geopolitics away from Western capitals toward Beijing.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Geopolitics, Armed Conflict, and Strategic Partnerships
Political Geography:
China, Iran, Middle East, Israel, and Asia

214. Serbia Between Brussels, Beijing, and Moscow: A Foreign Policy of Diversification

Author:
Nina Markovic Khaze
Publication Date:
08-2025
Content Type:
Commentary and Analysis
Institution:
Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA)
Abstract:
As global rivalries intensify, Serbia stands at a complex geopolitical juncture. The country is simultaneously pursuing accession negotiations with the European Union (EU), deepening strategic ties with China, and maintaining longstanding relations with Russia.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, European Union, Geopolitics, Diversification, Rivalry, and Strategic Interests
Political Geography:
Russia, China, Europe, Eastern Europe, and Serbia

215. After Palestine, Should Australia Recognise Somaliland

Author:
Abdi Daud
Publication Date:
11-2025
Content Type:
Commentary and Analysis
Institution:
Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA)
Abstract:
Australia should give serious consideration to recognise Somaliland, particularly following its recognition of Palestine in September 2025. In doing so, it would reinforce its strategic position in the Indo-Pacific, align with US interests, counter Chinese expansion, and address practical challenges facing Australian Somaliland communities.
Topic:
Strategic Interests, Regional Politics, and Recognition
Political Geography:
China, Palestine, Australia, Somaliland, and Indo-Pacific

216. Beyond the Pit: Can Australia Compete in Critical Mineral Processing?

Author:
Sangita Gayatri Kannan
Publication Date:
07-2025
Content Type:
Commentary and Analysis
Institution:
Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA)
Abstract:
The energy transition depends on critical minerals, but supply chains are vulnerable due to processing concentration in China. Australia can play a key role if it moves beyond raw material exports.
Topic:
Natural Resources, Exports, Mining, Supply Chains, Energy Transition, and Critical Minerals
Political Geography:
China, Australia, and Oceania

217. The Critical Minerals Trap: Why Australia Must Proceed with Caution

Author:
Christopher Khatouki
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Commentary and Analysis
Institution:
Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA)
Abstract:
Australia’s critical minerals push is being sold as a strategic win, but it risks doubling down on a “dumb” commodity economy while locking Canberra deeper into U.S.-led geoeconomic rivalry. With China’s dominance already entrenched and processing environmentally costly and uncompetitive, the real danger is mistaking subsidised extraction for strategy – and sacrificing long-term industrial sovereignty for short-term alliance politics.
Topic:
Economy, Mining, Geoeconomics, and Critical Minerals
Political Geography:
China, Australia, and Oceania

218. Foreign Policy of China: Pursuing the Resources in Afghanistan

Author:
Naqibullah Mashwani
Publication Date:
01-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
South Asian Studies
Institution:
Department of Political Science, University of the Punjab
Abstract:
China, a major power playing the peripheral diplomacy to bring developing countries to a table of dialogues, negotiations and international conferences to express their interests and form new relations.Thus, it has always been friendly and supportive to Afghanistan; providing humanitarian aid, investing in infrastructure, and extracting natural resources. However, China spent more on the minerals of Afghanistan during the new acting government than in the previous government. China was not deeply involved economically with the former government though they had signed some significant agreements.This was also one of the reasons China did not resist and took part in the 20 years long war in Afghanistan, instead, China supported, hosted and mediated Taliban. After the fall of Kabul and the return of the Taliban, China turned its policy and filled the vacuum, gave them de facto recognition and backed them in terms of security and economic development. This paper deeply explores the foreign policy of China towards Afghanistan and how they invested in extracting natural resources, infrastructure and tightened major economic agreements with the Taliban and contributed to the internal security and stability.China, a pioneer in oil extraction in Afghanistan has signed significant agreements and contracts with the interim government of Afghanistan for mineral extraction and refinery development.
Topic:
Security, Foreign Policy, Natural Resources, and Taliban
Political Geography:
Afghanistan, China, and Asia

219. Constructive Role of State-Owned Broadcaster in Elevating Economic Development and Peacebuilding: The Case Study of China Radio International and CGTN-Radio (2024-2025)

Author:
Muhammad Ahmad Sheikh and Muhammad Yousaf
Publication Date:
07-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
South Asian Studies
Institution:
Department of Political Science, University of the Punjab
Abstract:
Constructive or solutions-focused news is often promoted as a way to lessen the conflicts based news and encourage audience to participate in national development, rather than reporting negative, conflict-driven news. (Djerf-Pierre, M., & Ekström, M. (2025) The study analyzes CRI/ CGTN -Radio news, podcast and talk shows highlighting positive economic frames while suggesting a need for stronger constructive journalism practices in prevailing world economic and peace situation. The thematic analysis of the main themes development, peace, and stability in the programmes of CR/CGTN -Radio (state-owned broadcaster) of China show mostly positive coverage. The programming content reveals that the news coverage of china radio international and CGTN-Radio emphasizes the economic development and peace initiatives of Pakistan and China. This study employs qualitative content analysis. Furthermore, the research highlights the necessity for constructive journalism globally, with a particular focus on China. The results indicate that state media prioritizes solutions to issues, social and economic stability, sustainability, and prosperous development.
Topic:
Journalism, Economic Development, Peacebuilding, and Radio
Political Geography:
Pakistan, China, South Asia, and Asia

220. Artificial Intelligence and the New World Order: A Comparative Study of US-China Technological Rivalry

Author:
Adnan Nawaz, Syed Raghab Ali, Naudir Bakht, and Zosha Noor
Publication Date:
01-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
South Asian Studies
Institution:
Department of Political Science, University of the Punjab
Abstract:
The power rivalry between the United States and China in the twenty-first century has been significantly influenced by advancements in artificial intelligence. This technology not only transforms economic markets but also enhances military capabilities and shapes political governance. This research explores the historical progression of AI development across these countries by showing how their unique political frameworks, alongside economic tables and strategic visions, created separate paths toward AI domination. During the Cold War years, the United States paced ahead through governmental investments combined with university innovation and its flexible private sector activity yet China obtained its growth through state-mandated direction and national planning alongside substantial financial allocations in line with initiatives like the Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan. China's Belt and Road initiative employs AI surveillance tools to construct new infrastructure as the United States depends on autonomous private enterprise operations without state control and freedom to conduct independent research. The competition between China and the United States targets multiple areas including semiconductor manufacturing technology together with quantum computing research and ethical standards creation which exposes weaknesses for each side. This study qualitatively evaluates the competition between US and China and analytically elucidates the key challenges which are posing threats to the global power hierarchy.AI operates as an accelerating force that shapes future power dynamics while determining digital sovereignty principles and deepening global ideological conflicts.
Topic:
Governance, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), Artificial Intelligence, Rivalry, and Digital Sovereignty
Political Geography:
China, Asia, North America, and United States of America

221. Intersectionality and Atrocity Crimes: Reflecting on the Experiences of Youth in Atrocity Situations

Author:
Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect
Publication Date:
07-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
The Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect
Abstract:
Mass atrocity crimes are often perpetrated against populations based on shared identity characteristics, such as ethnicity, religion, race or language. In many contexts, individuals who belong to more than one marginalized group face heightened and compounded risks. These risks are shaped by the unique social and political dynamics of a given context, where assumptions about power and identity intersect. There is growing recognition that failing to address complex and overlapping identities can obscure or deny the human rights inherent to all. Effective atrocity prevention must reflect the diversity of populations around the world and recognize how intersecting identities contribute to vulnerability and risk. Applying an intersectional lens is essential to identifying early warning signs, understanding the drivers of identity-based violence and ensuring no one is overlooked. This new policy brief focuses on the specific risks faced by youth in atrocity situations, particularly when multiple forms of identity compound their vulnerability. This brief underscores the urgent need to meaningfully center youth perspectives, in all their diversity, within national, regional and multilateral atrocity prevention strategies and decision-making processes. The brief draws on case studies from the Gaza Strip, El Salvador, Sudan and the Uyghur community in and beyond China. These examples are informed by testimony and insights shared by youth activists during an event hosted by the Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect and the European Union on 18 April 2024. Participants included young advocates for marginalized ethnic groups, people with disabilities and LGBTQIA+ youth, who shared their lived experiences and strategies for more inclusive, effective prevention
Topic:
Human Rights, Youth, Atrocities, Uyghurs, Identity, and Activism
Political Geography:
China, Sudan, Gaza, and El Salvador

222. Strategic Vulnerabilities in Space: U.S.-China Militarization and the Risks to Global Strategic Stability

Author:
Ameema Khalid
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Journal of Advanced Military Studies
Institution:
Marine Corps University Press, National Defense University
Abstract:
This study investigates the militarization of space by the United States and China using the theoretical frameworks of technological determinism and the security dilemma. Data analysis of policy documents, military doctrines, and strategic literature reveals how technological advancements, mutual distrust, and dual-use technologies have transformed space into a contested domain. Findings indicate that the lack of international regulations and transparency exacerbates the risks of miscalculation and conflict. The study suggests actionable measures, including binding treaties, enhanced transparency, and conflict resolution mechanisms to promote peaceful space exploration. This research contributes to the broader discourse on space security by offering insights into managing militarization challenges in a rapidly advancing technological era.
Topic:
Security, Science and Technology, Space, Strategic Stability, and Militarization
Political Geography:
China, Asia, North America, and United States of America

223. How Does China View the Western Balkans, Kosovo, and the Normalization Dialogue?

Author:
Ramadan Ilazi, Delmin Saljunovic, and Matt Delvoye
Publication Date:
07-2025
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Kosovar Centre for Security Studies (KCSS)
Abstract:
A mix of ideological and pragmatic approaches shapes China’s engagement in the Western Balkans. While the region of the Western Balkans is not central to Beijing’s foreign policy, it offers a critical discursive and geopolitical space through which China challenges the West and tests elements of its broader international relations strategy. In other words, China aspires to rival the West in the Balkans, primarily through economic competition in an effort to preach its political values over international order (or its view of the world) as a model that is, according to the Chinese, better than the model of regional and European integration that the Western Balkans pursues jointly with the West. In this context, Kosovo stands out as an important case. For China, Kosovo is not simply a state that is contested by Serbia but means through which it articulates its opposition to the West and liberal democracy while consolidating its alliance with Serbia. This paper argues that China’s stance on Kosovo is not driven by legal principle but by political utility. Kosovo is treated as a “Western project” to be delegitimized rather than a dispute to be resolved. The paper is structured into five sections. It begins with sections one and two by outlining a conceptual discussion of Chinese foreign policy, aiming to provide a foundation for understanding the underlying principles that drive Chinese foreign policy philosophy. Section three discusses China’s presence in the Western Balkans and discusses the path dependency approach of Chinese foreign policy. Section four presents a discourse analysis of Chinese foreign policy to examine the specific language China employs when discussing Kosovo, Serbia, and the normalization process, based on an analysis of 82 texts totaling over 30,000 words, that include official statements, speeches and interviews from officials largely from 2008 to 2024. Section five adopts a more critical, attitudinal perspective, situating China’s approach within its broader interests in the Western Balkans. Drawing from official Chinese statements, UN Security Council speeches, MFA briefings, and diplomatic visits, the paper traces China’s positioning toward Kosovo, a subject which, to date, has been largely unexplored in Kosovo. At its core, the paper also identifies a consistent pattern of rhetorical distance paired with alignment with Serbia. The main findings of the paper are threefold. First, China’s discourse on Kosovo is grounded in a legalistic framework in appearance or rhetoric and opportunistic in practice. However, even in its legalistic appearance China always ignores ICJ’s opinion on Kosovo’s independence in 2010. Second, China’s foreign policy toward the Western Balkans is not neutral, but explicitly aligned with Serbia, both rhetorically and technically, and this makes Serbia a key platform for Chinese influence in our region, as other studies have shown.1 Third, despite its support for the EU-led normalization dialogue between Kosovo and Serbia in principle, China undermines the process by refusing to endorse its objectives, distancing itself from the notion of “normalization,” and promoting a status quo that favors ambiguity over resolution. For China, Kosovo is not an issue that needs to be resolved, but a Western design liberal-democratic project that needs to fail. In other words, China’s position on Kosovo has largely remained the same since 1998, and viewing Kosovo’s “solution” in a way that best fits interests of Sebia, which, as this paper seeks to show, is largely because of Taiwan.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Normalization, International Order, and Dialogue
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Kosovo, and Western Balkans

224. How Does the Serbian Security Doctrine View Kosovo, the West, Russia, and China?

Author:
Ramadan Ilazi
Publication Date:
04-2025
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
Kosovar Centre for Security Studies (KCSS)
Abstract:
This paper analyzes Serbia’s security doctrine as outlined in its National Security Strategy (2021), focusing on how it perceives Kosovo, the West (EU, NATO, and the US), Russia, and China. Serbia’s security posture is shaped by a balancing act— engaging both the West (EU, U.S., NATO) security structures while at the same time maintaining strong strategic relations with Russia and China. Despite its proclaimed military neutrality, Serbia’s security doctrine reflects an aggressive posture toward Kosovo, a skeptical stance on the West, and a deepening strategic alignment with Moscow and Beijing. The strategy frames Kosovo’s independence as a direct challenge to Serbia’s territorial integrity and national security. Serbia’s security apparatus is engaged in diplomatic efforts, intelligence operations, and hybrid warfare to undermine Kosovo’s sovereignty and prevent its international recognition. While Serbia rejects NATO membership, it cooperates with NATO through the Partnership for Peace (PfP). Serbia maintains strong defense and energy ties with Russia, benefiting from diplomatic backing on Kosovo while avoiding Western sanctions on Moscow. China is emerging as a key economic and security partner, providing investments in infrastructure, digital surveillance, and military technology. Serbia has significantly expanded its military capabilities, acquiring weapons from Russia and China while participating in joint drills with both NATO and CSTO. The adoption of the Total Defense concept—mobilizing the entire population and resources for national security—raises concerns about escalation and arms races in the Western Balkans. Serbia’s strategy frames Western influence as a security challenge, particularly regarding media, civil society, and foreign-backed democratization efforts. The West is seen as a hybrid threat, accused of interfering in Serbia’s internal affairs, while Russia and China are portrayed as strategic allies. Serbia’s approach contributes to a geopolitical divide in the Western Balkans, where Kosovo is aligned fully with the West, while Serbia hedges between the EU and authoritarian states, as well as grappling internally with authoritarian practices. Serbia’s influence campaigns portray Kosovo as a source of instability, using disinformation, cyber-attacks, and lobbying efforts to stall Kosovo’s state-consolidation process as well as EU and NATO aspirations. Kosovo’s reactive foreign policy and languishing partnership with the U.S., and the EU create an enabling environment for Serbia’s efforts against Kosovo’s statehood.
Topic:
Security, Foreign Policy, NATO, Diplomacy, and European Union
Political Geography:
Russia, China, Europe, Asia, and Kosovo

225. Signals in the Swarm: The Data Behind China’s Maritime Gray Zone Campaign Near Taiwan

Author:
Jose M. Macias and Benjamin Jensen
Publication Date:
10-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS)
Abstract:
Under the guise of fishing, Beijing is using dual-use and unmarked vessels to surveil, harass, and assert presence around Taiwan. Analysis of AIS tracks, People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) drill zones, and Global Fishing Watch data narrowed a subset of 12,000 vessels traveling near Taiwan on days likely to coincide with maritime drills down to 315 vessels that were both flying the Chinese flag and identified as fishing vessels. The classification framework developed at the Futures Lab flagged 128 likely gray zone actors. Institutionalizing this framework inside a Coalition Joint-Maritime Anomaly Cell (CJ-MAC) would automate anomaly detection and scale coverage across the Taiwan Strait and Indo-Pacific. CJ-MAC should be leveraged to fuse intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR), publish suspect-vessel alerts, and cue real-time monitoring and patrols. Many suspect vessels manipulate identity and visibility—going dark, switching names, or masking movements—behavior consistent with covert tasking. Publishing and punishing a rolling blacklist of repeat offenders through sanctions on owners, insurers, and operators would raise costs and shrink deniability. To support this effort, U.S. and allied intelligence agencies should map corporate ownership networks tied to suspicious vessels—identifying shell companies and economic exposure in allied jurisdictions. Gray zone tactics exploit ambiguity, with mixed fleets and massive automatic identification system (AIS) volumes making it hard to separate commerce from covert operations. A Taiwan Transparency Dashboard and an annual Gray Zone Maritime Threat Estimate would give policymakers and partners a clear, shared operating picture.
Topic:
Armed Forces, Maritime, and Gray Zone
Political Geography:
China, Taiwan, and Asia

226. CRINK Security Ties: Growing Cooperation, Anchored by China and Russia

Author:
Bonny Lin, Brian Hart, Leon Li, Hugh Grant-Chapman, Truly Tinsley, and Feifei Hung
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS)
Abstract:
Military and security cooperation among China, Russia, Iran, and North Korea (CRINK) accelerated significantly after Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. This includes a surge in transfers of arms and dual-use goods, a new mutual defense pact, and more frequent and diversified joint military exercises. Observable security cooperation has taken place bilaterally or trilaterally, with no discernable official cooperation taking place quadrilaterally. However, there have been instances of Chinese, Iranian, and North Korean players working together in diffuse ways to support Russia’s war in Ukraine. Overall, the China-Russia security partnership is the most robust, but North Korea and Iran have quickly strengthened security cooperation as well, primarily with Russia. Despite strengthened ties among CRINK countries, the four countries are not always on the same page. To date, limited overt military support for Iran following attacks by Israel and the United States showcased how various factors—transactional calculations, power asymmetries, geographic distance, simultaneity of conflict and fatigue, U.S. military involvement, different interests, and elements of distrust—affect the willingness of CRINK countries to directly support one another via military means. Overall, the two larger powers—China and Russia—anchor CRINK cooperation. They have much more to offer to incentivize others to support them, and they are the most closely aligned bilateral actors. China, Russia, and North Korea are the trio most likely to support one another in times of need.
Topic:
Security, Defense Policy, International Security, and Geopolitics
Political Geography:
Russia, China, Iran, Ukraine, and Asia

227. Beyond Rare Earths: China’s Growing Threat to Gallium Supply Chains

Author:
Aidan Powers-Riggs, Brian Hart, Matthew Funaiole, Scott Thomsett, Simon Zieleniewski, and Tim Rose
Publication Date:
07-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS)
Abstract:
China is increasingly weaponizing its chokehold over critical minerals amid intensifying economic and technological competition with the United States. The critical mineral gallium, which is crucial to defense industry supply chains and new energy technologies, has been at the front line of China’s strategy. To date, China’s chokehold on rare earth metals has attracted more attention than its restrictions on gallium, and some have downplayed the potential consequences of disruptions to gallium supply chains. Yet CSIS analysis reveals the extent to which China can wield gallium to impose significant economic harm on the United States and its allies and partners. This CSIS Brief unpacks the scope of the problem and offers policy recommendations on how to bolster U.S. and allied economic security and deny China a key tool of economic warfare.
Topic:
Exports, Supply Chains, Rare earth elements (REEs), Geoeconomics, and Critical Minerals
Political Geography:
China and Asia

228. CRINK Economic Ties: Uneven Patterns of Collaboration

Author:
Maria Snegovaya, Nicholas Fenton, and Tina Dolbaia
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS)
Abstract:
China, Russia, Iran, and North Korea (CRINK) face obstacles to economic collaboration such as geographic distance, sanctions, mutual mistrust, and self-sufficiency goals. Reliable data on CRINK’s economic and trade ties is limited due to lack of reported data from Iran and North Korea and the rise of informal and shadow trade since Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. Existing data reveals uneven patterns, although expanding bilateral agreements, strengthening energy ties, and increasing trade in dual-use technologies point to growing economic cooperation among the CRINK countries. CRINK also seeks to integrate their financial and payment systems to bypass Western sanctions by prioritizing national currencies over the U.S. dollar. The post-2022 China-Russia relationship drives most of the momentum, while Iran and North Korea exhibit expanding but considerably weaker integration with the rest of the group. China is nevertheless a cautious actor that hedges its bets in energy trade with Russia and Iran, avoids flagrant sanctions violations, and faces constraints from its own economic slowdown.
Topic:
Economics, Trade, Treaties and Agreements, Economic Security, Geopolitics, International Security, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Middle East, Russia, and Europe

229. A World Adrift: Reordering and New Pathways of Cooperation

Author:
Mely Caballero-Anthony
Publication Date:
11-2025
Content Type:
Commentary and Analysis
Institution:
Centre for Non-Traditional Security Studies, S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies
Abstract:
Global governance is under severe strain as geopolitical conflicts, climate risks, pandemics, technological disruptions, and widening inequalities unfold amid the United States’ retrenchment from the international arena and China’s assertiveness in global affairs. A more pluralistic global landscape is emerging where new and old institutions coexist. Regional and middle powers, including groupings like ASEAN, can shape a more stable and cooperative order through inclusive, rules-based frameworks that strengthen resilience and revitalise multilateralism.
Topic:
Governance, Geopolitics, Institutions, ASEAN, Regional Power, and Middle Power
Political Geography:
China and United States of America

230. No breakthrough at the European-African summit in Luanda

Author:
Jędrzej Czerep
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
The Polish Institute of International Affairs (PISM)
Abstract:
On 24-25 November, the seventh European Union-African Union summit was held in Luanda, the capital of Angola. It was dominated by issues related to security, competition with China via the EU's Global Gateway programme, and access to critical minerals. The meeting also served to demonstrate a mutual commitment to multilateralism.
Topic:
Security, Diplomacy, European Union, Multilateralism, and African Union
Political Geography:
Africa, China, Europe, and Angola

231. EU Focuses on Returns and the Externalisation of Migration Management

Author:
Jolanta Szymańska
Publication Date:
08-2025
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
The Polish Institute of International Affairs (PISM)
Abstract:
In recent months, the EU has been focusing on increasing the scale of returns of migrants to their countries of origin, as well as intensifying the search for partners in migration management outside the main transit routes to Europe. This strategy is gaining increasing support among the EU Member States. However, the main limitation for its implementation will be the instability of partner countries and the growing influence of Russia and China in the Global South.
Topic:
European Union, Migration Policy, and Externalization
Political Geography:
Russia, China, Europe, and Global South

232. China Facing Domestic Economic Challenges and Trade War with the U.S.

Author:
Marcin Przychodniak
Publication Date:
05-2025
Content Type:
Working Paper
Institution:
The Polish Institute of International Affairs (PISM)
Abstract:
A session of China’s parliament in March confirmed that the main source of the country’s economic growth in 2025 is to be state-supported industrial production, including the development of the high-tech sector, along with increasing domestic consumption and exports. The shape of China’s economic policy will be influenced by, among other things, the course of the trade conflict with the United States. For the EU, China’s economic plans imply the need to further protect the single market and increase competitiveness.
Topic:
Economy, Economic Growth, Trade Wars, and Industry
Political Geography:
China, Asia, North America, and United States of America

233. Report: Eight Years On, China’s Repression of the Uyghurs Remains Dire

Author:
Rian Thum
Publication Date:
02-2025
Content Type:
Special Report
Institution:
Simon-Skjodt Center for the Prevention of Genocide, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Abstract:
The Simon-Skjodt Center for the Prevention of Genocide released a report in January 2025, “Eight Years On, China’s Repression of the Uyghurs Remains Dire: How China’s Policies in the Uyghur Region Have and Have Not Changed.” The report is authored by Rian Thum, Senior Lecturer in East Asian History, at the University of Manchester. The report seeks to improve our collective understanding of China’s ongoing repressive policies in the predominantly Uyghur province of Xinjiang in western China. The Simon-Skjodt Center released a report in 2021 detailing multiple crimes against humanity that the Chinese government had committed against the Uyghur population, a Turkic Muslim minority group, and expressing grave concern that the Chinese government may be committing genocide. Since then, detailed reporting on state policies has decreased as Chinese authorities increasingly restricted access to information. Using recent evidence from Chinese state documents, satellite imagery, and survivor testimony, as well as a synthesis of recent academic publications, the report aims to fill a knowledge gap about the current state of mass atrocities targeting the Uyghur community and other Turkic minorities in the Uyghur region. The report finds that, given the available information, all of the policies that led to accusations of mass atrocities in the Uyghur region continue, and some are expanding. These findings should prompt deeper research into the nature of mass atrocities facing the Uyghur population and spark urgent, effective responses. In particular, the report recommends further research into emerging repressive strategies, including the intense network of electronic and human surveillance, curbs on religious practice, and the destruction of cultural heritage.
Topic:
Human Rights, Minorities, Repression, and Uyghurs
Political Geography:
China, Asia, and Xinjiang

234. China's Strategic Finance Drive: Considerations for Korea’s Next Steps

Author:
Jiyoung Moon
Publication Date:
06-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Korea Institute for International Economic Policy (KIEP)
Abstract:
At the Central Financial Work Conference in 2023, China emphasized the importance of developing “Financial development with Chinese characteristics” for the nation's economic structural transition, and announced “building a financial powerhouse” as a key national strategic objective. The strategy, termed “Financial development with Chinese characteristics,” emphasizes strengthened Communist Party leadership over the financial industry, aiming to ensure stability, mitigate risks, and support high-quality economic growth. The Chinese government has undertaken significant institutional reforms around three main pillars: (1) building a comprehensive control framework to reinforce financial stability through enhanced Party supervision, (2) enhancing mechanisms to support the real economy by channeling financial resources into strategic industries such as technology, green finance, inclusive finance, pension finance, and digital finance, and (3) advancing market-oriented financial reforms, particularly interest rate liberalization, to improve capital allocation and address chronic credit constraints, especially for small and medium private enterprises. However, challenges persist, including excessive investment in real estate, local government debt, and underdeveloped capital markets. China is addressing these through supply-side reforms of capital markets, improved regulatory oversight, and efforts to foster world-class investment banks. For Korea, these developments imply both opportunities and risks. As China increases financial support for strategic industries and consolidates regulatory control, Korean companies and financial institutions must adapt their strategies to navigate evolving market entry barriers and geopolitical uncertainties. The report recommends that Korea formulate targeted economic cooperation strategies, closely monitor regulatory changes, assess financial risks, and strengthen bilateral policy coordination to ensure resilient and transparent business partnerships with China.
Topic:
Bilateral Relations, Reform, Finance, Business, Economic Development, and Financial Stability
Political Geography:
China, Asia, and South Korea

235. China's Digital Trade Development Strategy and Its Implications

Author:
Seung Shin Lee
Publication Date:
11-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Korea Institute for International Economic Policy (KIEP)
Abstract:
In recent years, the Chinese government has announced a series of digital trade development plans and applied to join high standard trade agreements, aiming to gradually expand external openness in line with global digital trade cooperation standards. Since 2023, major government documents have repeatedly emphasized the development of digital trade and e-commerce. This trend reflects not only the growing weight of the digital economy in China’s overall economy, but also the government’s attempt to offset sluggish domestic growth momentum by accelerating digital transformation. According to data, digital sectors have grown by approximately 3.3 times since 2014, accounting for 42.8% of China’s GDP. This indicates that the digital economy has become one of the key growth drivers of the Chinese economy. With the acceleration of digital transformation and the rapid development of digital trade, frequent trade barriers of various kinds are emerging. This has increased the need for active discussions on digital economy governance and trade rules to effectively manage such barriers. As China’s influence in global digital trade continues to expand, understanding and responding to its strategies has become a pressing task for Korea and other trading partners.
Topic:
Development, Economy, E-Commerce, and Digital Trade
Political Geography:
China and Asia

236. AI Standard Choices Under Geopolitical Competition

Author:
Sangjun Yea
Publication Date:
10-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Korea Institute for International Economic Policy (KIEP)
Abstract:
This study examines how global competition over artificial intelligence (AI) standards is unfolding amid growing geopolitical rivalry between the United States and China. It develops a theoretical model to analyze how a third country decides whether to align its domestic AI standard with the U.S. or Chinese framework once both standards exist. The analysis highlights that the choice depends primarily on global and local network effects, market competition, and the role of domestic platforms intermediating AI services. The findings suggest that the technological superiority of foundation AI models and the expanding global user base are key determinants of international standards adoption, implying that AI standardization has become a strategic domain of global economic and political competition.
Topic:
Economics, Geopolitics, Artificial Intelligence, and Strategic Competition
Political Geography:
China, Asia, North America, and United States of America

237. Between Sun Tzu, Clausewitz, and Stalin: A Synthetic character of Mao Zedong’s Military Thought

Author:
Damian Winczewski
Publication Date:
07-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Journal of Military and Strategic Studies
Institution:
Centre for Military, Security and Strategic Studies
Abstract:
In modern literature on military thought of Mao Zedong, authors puts a lot of emphasis on its relationship with classical Chinese thought. Many focus on the influence of Sun Tzu, or Clausewitz. In this article I would like to focus mainly on influences of the Marxist thought, through which as I think the Chinese strategist interpreted the art of war. I will compare Mao Zedong's views on the nature and ethics of war with the statements of Marxist classics on these issues. In this way, his theses, allegedly derived from classical Chinese philosophy, gain a wider context in which the influence of Stalinist vulgarization of Marxism on Mao's philosophical reflections in relation to war is quite visible.
Topic:
War, Military Affairs, Philosophy, Mao Zedong, Carl von Clausewitz, Sun Tzu, Josef Stalin, and Ethics
Political Geography:
China, Asia, and Global Focus

238. A Global Enemy: Muslims and 21st Century Racism with Professor Saher Selod (9/11/2025)

Author:
Saher Selod
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Video
Institution:
Center for Security, Race and Rights (CSRR), Rutgers University School of Law
Abstract:
Based on her critically acclaimed book, Dr. Saher Selod examines how Muslims experience racialization on a global scale with a focus on the United States, China, India, and the United Kingdom. Counterterrorism policies, hyper-surveillance and racialized policing are grounded in transnational negative representations of Islam which in turn legitimize and institutionalize state-sponsored racism against Muslim minorities.
Topic:
Racism, Muslims, Racialization, and Policing
Political Geography:
China, United Kingdom, Europe, India, Asia, North America, and United States of America

239. Gods and Stars: The Use of Mythological Roots in the Chinese Space Program. Analysis

Author:
Krzysztof Jan Karwowski
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Nowa Polityka Wschodnia
Institution:
Faculty of Political Science and International Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń
Abstract:
This study examines the Chinese space program from a cultural perspective. The program, in previous two decades, has achieved a series of achievements, including the successful deployment of rocket launching systems, manned space missions, satellites, and space probes exploring the Moon, asteroids, and Mars. A key focus of this research is the naming convention and promotional strategies associated with the Chinese space activities. These names and symbols are rooted in a cultural tradition completely different and contrasting with the Greco-Roman heritage commonly adopted by the traditional space powers i.e. USA, USSR/Russia, and Europe. The paper involved cataloguing, classifying, and analysing the source materials— specifically, counting and explaining the mission codes developed by China. Missions were categorised into major thematic origins: (A) Mythology, cosmology, culture, (B) Political/communist-related content, (C) Astronomy, astronomers, space-inspired concepts, discoverers and science, (D) Technological jargon and (E) Other. The findings indicate that despite its history as a communist state with periods of distancing from ancient traditions, China’s space program has become a prominent platform for promoting Chinese symbolism. Cultural symbols, along with Chinese scientific and astronomical concepts, overwhelmingly dominate the other thematic categories.
Topic:
Culture, Soft Power, Smart Power, Space Program, and Nomenclature
Political Geography:
China and Asia

240. Silk Road legacy and China’s cultural diplomacy in Sino-Uzbek relations

Author:
Elżbieta Proń
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Nowa Polityka Wschodnia
Institution:
Faculty of Political Science and International Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń
Abstract:
In the mid-2020s, Uzbekistan became China’s primary strategic partner in Central Asia (CA). Sino-Uzbek ties’ political and economic nature has been well-researched, but there is a research gap regarding China’s cultural diplomacy towards Uzbekistan. This paper fills this gap by providing a scrutiny of China’s instrumentalization of the Silk Road legacy, the use of archaeological cooperation as a diplomatic tool, and China’s educational diplomacy towards Uzbekistan. It argues that while China’s cultural diplomacy towards Uzbekistan has been built upon China’s diplomacy in Central Asia, Beijing designed it carefully, recognizing the distinctiveness of Uzbekistan’s political and cultural traditions. China’s cultural diplomacy towards Uzbekistan has been mainly fostered via top-down initiatives from Beijing, Xi’an academic and cultural institutions, and professional and academic exchange rather than people-to-people bottom-up interactions. As such, this paper contributes to research on the legacy of the Silk Road in Chinese foreign policy, Sino-Uzbek relations, and China-Central Asian studies.
Topic:
International Relations, Foreign Policy, Cultural Diplomacy, and Silk Road
Political Geography:
China, Central Asia, Asia, and Uzbekistan

241. Can Social Constructivism in IR Shape Foreign Policies?

Author:
Anmol Mukhia
Publication Date:
02-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
AUSTRAL: Brazilian Journal of Strategy International Relations
Institution:
Postgraduate Program in International Strategic Studies, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Abstract:
From time to time, North Korea and China’s relations have been analyzed by different scholars as a byproduct or satellite state of China. We often debate power, war, and allies from a realist understanding. However, the constructivist approach has not been addressed much. The significant developments during the Korean War were symbolic, shared ideas, and the creation of identities, which were crucial to understanding the state’s choice and preference in foreign policy decision-making. In this article, I draw on the work of the constructivist approach to argue the North Korean and China relations during the Korean War. In this way, the constructivist explanation can be suitable for explaining the dynamics of North Korean and China ties because they look at the history and social dynamics within states for its outcome.
Topic:
International Relations, Foreign Policy, Bilateral Relations, and Social Constructivism
Political Geography:
China, Asia, and North Korea

242. Sino-Russian Cooperation and its Impacts on Central Asia

Author:
Giorgio Romano Schutte and Diego Noveli Valadares
Publication Date:
09-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
AUSTRAL: Brazilian Journal of Strategy International Relations
Institution:
Postgraduate Program in International Strategic Studies, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Abstract:
This article analyzes Sino-Russian cooperation in Central Asia, examining China’s growing economic presence and the reconfiguration of Russian influence in the region. Since 2014, Western sanctions and geopolitical tensions have led Moscow and Beijing to deepen their partnership. While China expands investments through the Belt and Road Initiative, Russia maintains its central role in regional security and financial influence. The study argues that despite China’s rise, Central Asia has become a space for strategic accommodation, where both powers avoid direct conflicts and consolidate their global presence.
Topic:
Security, Foreign Policy, Economics, International Cooperation, Bilateral Relations, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), and Investment
Political Geography:
Russia, China, Central Asia, and Asia

243. Focus on Eurasia: The Axis of Upheaval

Author:
Andrea Kendall-Taylor, Carol Saivetz, and David Wood
Publication Date:
10-2025
Content Type:
Video
Institution:
MIT Center for International Studies
Abstract:
Focus on Eurasia: The Axis of Upheaval: How Russia, China, Iran, and North Korea Seek to Change the World: Tuesday, October 28 Speaker: Andrea Kendall-Taylor is a senior fellow and director of the Transatlantic Security Program at the Center for a New American Security (CNAS). She works on national security challenges facing the United States and Europe, focusing on Russia, authoritarianism and threats to democracy, and the state of the transatlantic alliance. Discussants: Carol Saivetz is a senior fellow in the MIT Security Studies Program at the Center for International Studies (CIS). She is the author and contributing co-editor of books and articles on Soviet and now Russian foreign policy issues. Elizabeth Wood is Ford International Professor of History at MIT. She is the author most recently of Roots of Russia’s War in Ukraine as well as articles on Vladimir Putin, the political cult of WWII, right-wing populism in Russia and Turkey, and U.S.-Russian Partnerships in Science. She is director of the MIT-Ukraine Program at CIS.
Topic:
International Relations, Security, Foreign Policy, and Geopolitics
Political Geography:
Russia, China, Iran, Eurasia, Middle East, Asia, and North Korea

244. Navigating US-China technology competition among Middle Powers: study of Chilean response

Author:
Andrés Orlando Bórquez Basáez and Dorotea López Giral
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional (RBPI)
Institution:
Instituto Brasileiro de Relações Internacionais (IBRI)
Abstract:
Amid intensifying US–China rivalry over digital governance, middle powers like Chile face growing pressure to navigate an increasingly fragmented global order. This article examines Chile’s response through expert interviews and analysis of three key technology cases involving Chinese firms. The findings show that Chile has adopted a Hedging Strategy, limiting involvement in sensitive tech projects aligned with US security concerns, while continuing to attract Chinese investment in areas like electromobility and renewables. The study underscores the combined impact of geopolitical tensions, domestic bureaucratic constraints, and the challenges of engaging with China, whose growing presence still requires a process of mutual adaptation. These dynamics raise questions about Chile’s priorities and the limits of its autonomy in this complex context.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Science and Technology, Bilateral Relations, Strategic Competition, and Middle Powers
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Latin America, North America, Chile, and United States of America

245. Impact of China–Latin America Transportation Infrastructure Cooperation on Latin American Economies: A Project Data Study (2009–2023)

Author:
Cao Ting
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional (RBPI)
Institution:
Instituto Brasileiro de Relações Internacionais (IBRI)
Abstract:
Since the beginning of the 21st century, China and Latin American countries have actively collaborated across various fields, including politics, economy, culture, and technology. Transportation infrastructure cooperation has emerged as a key aspect of this relationship. This article analyzes the characteristics of China–Latin America transportation infrastructure cooperation using project data from 2009 to 2023 and evaluates its effectiveness and future prospects. The findings indicate that this cooperation has yielded significant achievements; however, challenges remain in areas such as communication with indigenous communities and environmental protection. Moving forward, it is essential for China and Latin America to deepen their collaboration, prioritize quality projects through strategic planning, and promote the green development and digitalization of transportation infrastructure.
Topic:
Infrastructure, Transportation, Economic Integration, and Regional Economy
Political Geography:
China, Asia, and Latin America

246. Divergent status-seeking in elite clubs: Brazil, China, and the BRICS expansion in Latin America

Author:
Luis Gouveia Junior
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional (RBPI)
Institution:
Instituto Brasileiro de Relações Internacionais (IBRI)
Abstract:
BRICS increased its geopolitical reach with a recent expansion. However, a divergent status-seeking, conceptualized as antagonistic strategies to gain status, emerged in BRICS during this process. While China defended the expansion, Brazil hesitated to accept it. Focusing on Latin America, where both seek to gain status, I analyzed how Brazil’s and China’s divergent status-seeking influenced the applications of Argentina, Bolivia, Cuba, and Venezuela for BRICS. I concluded that status-seeking motivations drove the candidacies of these states. However, Brazil served as a gatekeeper, potentially hardening the acceptance of Latin American countries in BRICS due to status calculations. Argentina’s entry was more acceptable for Brazil’s strategy to garner prestige than Venezuela’s. Meanwhile, China defended a broader expansion, supporting all four candidacies.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Geopolitics, BRICS, Regional Politics, and Status
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Brazil, South America, and Latin America

247. Cinema as soft power: China’s strategic narratives in Brazil

Author:
Paulo Menechelli
Publication Date:
12-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional (RBPI)
Institution:
Instituto Brasileiro de Relações Internacionais (IBRI)
Abstract:
This paper examines how China leverages cinema as a soft power tool in Brazil, focusing on film festivals, co-productions, and Confucius Institute initiatives. Adopting a poststructuralist approach, it analyzes the strategic narratives embedded in these efforts and their reception by Brazilian audiences. While initiatives like the Looking China Youth Film Project show promise, challenges persist, including Hollywood’s dominance and limited audience reach. The delayed 2017 co-production agreement underscores the complexity of bilateral cultural engagement. By highlighting both the potential and limitations of China’s cinematic strategy, the paper contributes to understanding the cultural dimensions of China–Latin America relations.
Topic:
Diplomacy, Soft Power, Cinema, and Strategic Narratives
Political Geography:
China, Asia, Brazil, and South America

248. A Costly Illusion of Control: No Winners, Many Losers in U.S.-China AI Race

Author:
Paul Triolo
Publication Date:
05-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Cairo Review of Global Affairs
Institution:
School of Global Affairs and Public Policy, American University in Cairo
Abstract:
The aggressive U.S. approach to China risks triggering conflict between the two nations while upending any progress to a global framework for AI safety and security
Topic:
Conflict Prevention, Security, Science and Technology, Bilateral Relations, Innovation, and Artificial Intelligence
Political Geography:
China, Asia, North America, and United States of America

249. India–Japan Defense Partnership in the Indo-Pacific: Geopolitical Prospects and Challenges Under Trump

Author:
Yen Pham Thi
Publication Date:
10-2025
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:
Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:
This article examines the India–Japan defense partnership in the Indo-Pacific, focusing on its geopolitical prospects and challenges under the Trump administration. Strengthened by shared concerns over China’s rising influence and the convergence of their Indo-Pacific strategies, the partnership has evolved beyond symbolic engagement to include joint exercises, technology sharing, and defense dialogues aimed at preserving a free and rules-based regional order. At the same time, India’s reliance on Russian defense equipment, Japan’s dependence on US security guarantees, and the “America First” policy under Trump pose significant constraints. To sustain and deepen cooperation, both nations must enhance bilateral mechanisms, pursue strategic autonomy, expand multilateral engagements, and promote regional norms. These steps are essential for building a resilient, sustainable, and strategic partnership in the Indo-Pacific amid a shifting US foreign policy landscape.
Topic:
Defense Policy, Partnerships, Geopolitics, and Donald Trump
Political Geography:
Japan, China, India, Asia, and Indo-Pacific

250. The consequences of the Trump trade war for Europe

Author:
Julian Hinz, Isabelle Mejean, and Moritz Schularick
Publication Date:
04-2025
Content Type:
Policy Brief
Institution:
Kiel Institute for the World Economy (IfW)
Abstract:
• Using the KITE model suite, we study the economic costs of the Trump tariff policy for Europe, and analyze the potential for trade diversion from China. • If the current tariff regime stays in place, trade between the U.S. and China would fall dramatically, hurting mainly the U.S. and the Chinese economies. The direct economic impact for Europe appears limited. • The expected rerouting of Chinese and U.S. exports to third countries is likely to intensify competition between European and Chinese producers in key markets. European consumersstand to benefit from lower prices.
Topic:
International Trade and Finance, Tariffs, Trade Wars, and Donald Trump
Political Geography:
China, Europe, North America, and United States of America