Content Type: Journal Article - CIAO Search Results

351. An Analysis of Türkiye’s Role in the Black Sea Region Building Process

Author:: Nergiz Özkural Köroğlu and Fatih Özgüven
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace
Institution:: Center for Foreign Policy and Peace Research
Abstract:: In a multipolar world, new security threats have emerged, and region-based approaches have been developed to address these new security challenges. In the literature on regionalisation, it is assumed that region-building processes take place under certain conditions and in certain stages. Considering the existing processes in the literature, this study aligns the formation of the Black Sea Region with the understanding of the stages of region-building and proposes new stages of region-building, influenced by the first and second waves of regionalisation processes. In order to analyse Türkiye’s role in the region, the statements made by Turkish political elites (Prime Minister, Foreign Minister, President, and Presidential Spokesperson) during their visits to the Black Sea countries (Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, and Georgia) between 2014 and 2023 were subjected to content analysis. This period was chosen to highlight the post-2014 period, which witnessed conflicts that negatively affected the region-building process. Security concerns are important in region-building processes and often lead to the formation of security communities.
Topic:: Multipolarity, Regional Security, and International Society
Political Geography:: Turkey, Middle East, and Black Sea

352. Achtung-Swarm! A Proposal for Swarm Maneuver Groups

Author:: John Bolen
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Advanced Military Studies
Institution:: Marine Corps University Press, National Defense University
Abstract:: The unmanned combat vehicle, or combat drone, is making its presence felt on battlefields around the world. Much like the tank and aircraft in World War I, drones have been employed individually or in small groups to conduct reconnaissance and precision strikes. But the Department of War’s renewed focus on large-scale combat operations warrants new thought regarding drone employment. This article is not a treatise on the technical aspects of unmanned combat vehicles, but instead a proposal for drone employment en masse as an operational maneuver force. It uses historical examples of operational maneuver, recent drone operations, and imagination to generate a new concept for combat drone employment: the swarm maneuver group. The high mobility and mass of the proposed swarm maneuver group offers the Joint Force a new means of conducting persistent deep operations to disintegrate adversary antiaccess/area-denial (A2/AD) systems and enable Joint operational access to theaters. The aim of this article is to generate creative thought, debate, and purposeful action regarding the offensive employment of unmanned combat vehicles in large-scale combat operations.
Topic:: Weapons, Drones, Innovation, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), and Warfare
Political Geography:: Global Focus

353. Ontological Security with its Widening and Deepening Boundaries: An Evaluation through a Bibliometric Analysis and Systematic Literature Review Lens

Author:: Sevgi BALKAN-ŞAHİN and Özge Çetiner
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace
Institution:: Center for Foreign Policy and Peace Research
Abstract:: Using rigorous bibliometric and systematic methodologies, this article comprehensively reviews academic studies on ontological security. Based on a Web of Science (WoS) retrieved dataset of 163 articles in International Relations and Political Science journals, the article has examined issues such as keywords, authorship, citation networks, and countries through bibliometric analysis. This quantitative analysis revealing the “widening” dimension of ontological security is complemented by a qualitative overview based on a systematic literature review to highlight the “deepening” dimension of ontological security. Together with an assessment of Turkish academia’s contribution to this widening and deepening literature, the article provides a map of ontological security for future studies.
Topic:: International Relations, Political Science, Literature Review, Bibliometric Analysis, and Ontological Security
Political Geography:: Global Focus

354. Strategic Vulnerabilities in Space: U.S.-China Militarization and the Risks to Global Strategic Stability

Author:: Ameema Khalid
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Advanced Military Studies
Institution:: Marine Corps University Press, National Defense University
Abstract:: This study investigates the militarization of space by the United States and China using the theoretical frameworks of technological determinism and the security dilemma. Data analysis of policy documents, military doctrines, and strategic literature reveals how technological advancements, mutual distrust, and dual-use technologies have transformed space into a contested domain. Findings indicate that the lack of international regulations and transparency exacerbates the risks of miscalculation and conflict. The study suggests actionable measures, including binding treaties, enhanced transparency, and conflict resolution mechanisms to promote peaceful space exploration. This research contributes to the broader discourse on space security by offering insights into managing militarization challenges in a rapidly advancing technological era.
Topic:: Security, Science and Technology, Space, Strategic Stability, and Militarization
Political Geography:: China, Asia, North America, and United States of America

355. Conscientious Centaurs: Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems, Human-Machine Teaming, and Moral Enmeshment

Author:: Jonathan Alexander
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Advanced Military Studies
Institution:: Marine Corps University Press, National Defense University
Abstract:: In modern warfare, lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS) introduce artificial intelligence–enabled capabilities that may execute lethal actions without final human judgment. Their development envisions human-machine teams (HMT) that combine machine precision with human situational awareness in what has been termed “centaur warfighting.” Although some argue that autonomous weapons will shield personnel from the psychological burdens of combat, others contend that such systems risk morally distancing human operators from lethal outcomes. This article instead examines how humans may become “enmeshed” with machines within HMT sociotechnical structures, producing new forms of moral exposure and potentially contributing to morally injurious experiences at the tactical level.
Topic:: Weapons, Morality, Autonomous Weapons Systems, Human-Machine Team (HMT), and Moral Injury
Political Geography:: Global Focus

356. All Azimuth Debate: Gradual Reform or Revolution? Pathways to Global IR

Author:: Ayşe Zarakol and Ersel Aydinli
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace
Institution:: Center for Foreign Policy and Peace Research
Abstract:: This forum article is based on the All Azimuth Debate held at Bilkent University on 3 October 2024. The event was organized by the Center for Foreign Policy and Peace Research in cooperation with Bilkent University’s Department of International Relations. The debate was moderated by Dr. Seçkin Köstem. The forum article demonstrates the scholarly exchange between Dr. Ayşe Zarakol and Dr. Ersel Aydınlı based on the answers that they gave to Dr. Seçkin Köstem’s questions on Global International Relations (IR). This forum article features two leading scholars’ perspectives regarding the definition of Global IR, the main actors and venues for Global IR, the role of English language as the dominant academic language, the essentialism/parochialism trap and pathways for a stronger global representation for the discipline of IR.
Topic:: International Relations, Globalization, Language, and Theory
Political Geography:: Global South

357. Twisting in the Wind: The Politics of Tepid Transitions to Renewable Energy

Author:: Deniz Ünal
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Uluslararasi Iliskiler
Institution:: International Relations Council of Turkey (UİK-IRCT)
Abstract:: The book analyses the transition to renewable energy in Türkiye, which, according to the Bayulgen, is the country in the world that needs it the most to reduce its current account deficit, energy insecurity, and increasing environmental degradation. Chapter one is an introductory chapter and draws the general framework for the study. The main puzzle of the book is why renewable energy reforms stagnate over time despite favourable economic and technical conditions and why it is hard to increase renewable energy against fossil fuels. These questions are important to detect if the factors necessary to initiate pro-renewable policies are different from those that are necessary to sustain them. The Turkish case shows how governments can implement renewable energy reforms under external pressures to meet increasing energy demand without an ideological commitment to the environment. Therefore, clean energy reforms are not always motivated by societal demands. Once the reforms are enacted by the hand of a narrow governing circle more easily, more democracy is needed to sustain them to break the incumbent position of fossil fuel companies. Thus, the author claims that the drivers of initial reforms are crises, opportunistic elites, and concentration of power; while the drivers of sustainable reform are representative institutions and professional bureaucracy.
Topic:: Book Review, Renewable Energy, Green Transition, and Energy
Political Geography:: Turkey and Middle East

358. The Origins of European Integration: The Pre-History of Today’s European Union, 1937-1951

Author:: Hacer Soykan Adaoğlu
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Uluslararasi Iliskiler
Institution:: International Relations Council of Turkey (UİK-IRCT)
Abstract:: Looking at the history of European integration, it is well known that the post-World War II period was crucial. Although the foundations of the idea of “unity” in Europe have a much longer history, this idea took on a more concrete form in the post-war period. In this sense, the Schuman Declaration of May 9, 1950, can be considered a turning point. Apart from this step, we should of course not ignore the contribution of David Mitrany and other theoretical studies, especially those focusing on functionalism. While there is dense and comprehensive literature on the history of European integration within this framework, Mathieu Segers’ 2024 work, entitled The Origins of European Integration: The Pre-History of Today’s European Union, 1937-1951, analyzes the process from a different perspective. Focusing on the years 1937-1951, the book is almost like an archeological study. What makes it original in this sense is that it draws attention to the “American influence” in European integration, or “Americanisation” in his own words. Apart from the “Introduction” and “Conclusion”, Segers divides his work into two parts and six episodes.
Topic:: History, European Union, Book Review, and Regional Integration
Political Geography:: Europe

359. The Rise of the Authoritarian Populist Right: The Illiberal Defenders of Freedom?

Author:: Péter Krekó
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Institution:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Abstract:: In recent years, political forces promoting exclusionary, nationalist, and illiberal ideologies are undeniably on the rise—not only in authoritarian regimes, but across the democratic world as well. Symbols once believed to be buried in the past, such as the Nazi or Roman salute, have resurfaced in mainstream political movements. For instance, in 2018, members of the far- right group Generation Identity were filmed performing the Roman salute in Austria, reminiscent of historical fascist movements.1 In 2024, members of the youth wing of Italian PM Giorgia Meloni’s governing party were caught on tape making Nazi salutes.2 Similarly, far-right activists and politicians in the United States have been seen engaging in or defending such gestures, thus normalizing them in contemporary politics.3 As recently as January 2025, prominent U.S. public figures—including Elon Musk and Steve Bannon— have used the salute, only to deny it afterward. But this game only adds to the gesture’s theatrical appeal, turning it into a secret expression of one’s “true” beliefs under supposed ideological oppression. This flashy shift in symbolism has occurred alongside the growing prevalence of overtly racist and exclusionary rhetoric. In countries such as Hungary and Italy, mainstream politicians have adopted narratives that frame migrants as existential threats to national identity, often using openly racist language previously thought to be taboo. Prior to this decade, mainstream far-right parties typically used softer, more “politically correct” ethno-nationalist language, blaming certain cultural patterns and traditions (e.g., the treatment of women among Muslims) instead of making explicit references to the color of skin.4 But many politicians no longer feel the need to mask their agenda behind subtle or restrained language. For example, in July 2022, Viktor Orbán, Prime Minister of Hungary, made his point clear when he declared, “We [Hungarians] are not a mixed race ... and we do not want to become a mixed race.”5 Meanwhile, in the American media, figures like journalist Tucker Carlson have promoted the “Great Replacement” conspiracy theory—a set of unsubstantiated claims that the “globalists” are deliberately replacing white Americans with immigrants and people of color to erode traditional American values and deprive “old America” of political power. This theory, previously confined to the fringes of white supremacist circles, became a cornerstone of the politics of Hungary’s Viktor Orbán as an official explanation for the demographic trend in Europe. Conspiracy theories now flourish at the highest levels of political decision-making, shaping policies on immigration, public health, and election integrity, among others, in Europe and the United States.
Topic:: Authoritarianism, Populism, Right-Wing Politics, and Illiberalism
Political Geography:: Global Focus

360. Unravelling the Nexus Between Organ Trade, Transplantation, and Global Health

Author:: Saja Abusulttan, Emma K. Massey, Dennis A. Hesselink, and Frederike Ambagtsheer
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Institution:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Abstract:: Organ transplantation is a highly specialized medical practice that has saved and prolonged the lives of hundreds of thousands of patients with failing or- gans.1 Despite strong advancements in medical technologies and the increase of transplantation activities globally, there remains an alarming shortage of organs.2 The total number of transplants performed worldwide is estimated to be less than 10 percent of the global need.3Estimates suggest that 15 million organs are needed annually to meet the global demand.4 This scarcity has led to the proliferation of a global organ market that largely consists of trade in living donor kidneys.5 Although reliable figures for the trade’s scope are lacking, the World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that between 3,000 and 6,000 transplants are performed illegally every year.6 With an estimated annual profit of up to $1.7 billion, the organ trade ranks amongst the top 10 most lucrative international organized criminal activities.7 The trade’s global proliferation brings forth numerous challenges for criminal justice and health policy.8 In this essay, we examine the interlinkages between the organ market, organ transplantation, and global health, and we assess the implications of these links for health policy. Our main argument is that contrary to popular depictions of the trade as an underground organized criminal network, the organ trade is a socio-medical problem that is embedded within healthcare systems. This convergence of the legal and illegal has numerous implications for health policymakers and criminal justice practitioners in limiting the organ trade and ameliorating its associated harms. In what follows, we explore this embeddedness and its implications in more detail. First, we introduce definitions of organ trade and its prohibition. Next, we describe how the global expansion of living donor kidney trans- plantation has coincided with the proliferation of illegal living donor kidney transplantations. We describe the various dimensions of this market, followed by an assessment of the trade’s associated harms. We conclude by offering reflections and recommendations for policy.
Topic:: Global Health, Policymaking, and Organ Transplants
Political Geography:: Global Focus

361. Global Health Security: Challenges and Opportunities in the Current Geopolitical Climate

Author:: Rebecca Katz
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Institution:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Abstract:: The global COVID-19 crisis and the shifting geopolitical climate are challeng- ing global cooperation in health security. New alliances amongst nations are forming: lower and middle-income country blocs are strengthening, while some nations are reorienting their disease governance away from multilateral institu- tions and towards regional entities. Meanwhile, bilateral funding in global health is drying up, and global financing mechanisms, including the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria (The Global Fund), Gavi, The Vaccine Alliance, and the Pandemic Fund, are all competing for the same, shrinking pot of development assistance dollars. Member States of the World Health Organization agreed to the text of a new international agreement to strengthen global governance of pandemics, but the negotiations were strained by issues of equity and access to medical countermeasures—issues that will continue to be debated even after the agreement is formally adopted. All these events are reshaping the global order and challenging the future of global health security. This article reviews key components of global health security, discusses evolving disease threats, addresses recent developments in the field, and presents chal- lenges, opportunities, and predictions for the future. Global health security (GHS) must be considered as part of the broader landscape of international relations and foreign policy. This consideration is critical because the state of international politics impacts the stability of global health security. The unpredictability of world leaders, potential future vulner- abilities from cyberattacks, trade disputes, unsustainable migration flows, and continued political divisions within nations all destabilize the current world order.1 More specifically, humanitarian crises in the Middle East, ongoing con- flict between Ukraine and Russia, and escalating tensions between China and Taiwan have all shaken the foundations of international cooperation. These geopolitical tensions influence the creation and effectiveness of collaborative, multilateral health efforts.
Topic:: Security, International Cooperation, Geopolitics, Multilateralism, COVID-19, and Global Health
Political Geography:: Global Focus

362. Beyond Exceptionalism: Costa Rica in Historical and Regional Context

Author:: Carlos Alvarado Quesada, Ariana Palomo, and Michelle Alas
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Institution:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Abstract:: Carlos Alvarado Quesada served as the 48th President of the Republic of Costa Rica from May 2018 to May 2022, when his constitutionally limited term ended. Under President Alvarado’s leadership, Costa Rica contributed to global efforts to combat climate change and defended human rights, democ- racy, and multilateralism. President Alvarado is a recipient of the 2022 Planetary Leadership Award by the National Geographic Society for his outstanding commitment and action toward protecting the ocean and in September 2019 he received on behalf of his country the Champion on the Earth Award for policy leadership, presented by the United Nations Environment Program. President Alvarado’s prior government leadership service includes a tenure as Minister of Labor and Social Security (2016-2018) and as Minister of Human Development and Social Inclusion (2014–2016) and Executive President of the Joint Social Welfare Institute, responsible for implementing social protection and promoting poverty alleviation programs. Before entering politics, he worked for Procter and Gamble, Latin America.
Topic:: History, Multilateralism, Interview, Exceptionalism, and Regional Politics
Political Geography:: Latin America and Costa Rica

363. The Myth of the Monolith: The Latino Vote in U.S. Elections

Author:: María Teresa Kumar
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Institution:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Abstract:: María Teresa Kumar is the co-founder and President of Voto Latino, the nation’s largest Latino voter registration and youth advocacy organization. Under her leadership, Voto Latino has registered nearly 2 million voters, with 79 percent casting ballots. The organization has pioneered the use of technology, social media, and influencers to expand the Latino electorate in key battleground states and combat disinformation, reaching over 6 million Americans monthly. A recognized political strategist, Kumar has advised President Obama’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing and serves on the National Task Force on Election Crises. She is an Emmy-nominated MSNBC analyst and serves on the boards of Steve Madden, Emily’s List, and the Rockefeller Brothers Fund. A first-generation Harvard Kennedy School graduate, she has been named among Bloomberg’s 100 Influential Latinos and Washingtonian’s Top Political Influencers.
Topic:: Elections, Voting, Interview, and Latinos
Political Geography:: North America and United States of America

364. The Politics of USAID

Author:: Cheryl Kamin
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Institution:: Brown Journal of World Affairs
Abstract:: Cheryl Kamin is a senior independent international health consultant. She most recently served as a Senior Infectious Disease Advisor (2018-2024) with the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) in the Bureau for Global Health’s Office of Infectious Diseases. She is a retired USAID Foreign Service Health Officer and has worked in the USAID Washington headquarters and overseas in USAID offices in Malawi, Russia, and Israel (working on the West Bank/Gaza portfolio). Kamin has extensive experience managing international maternal and child health programs and infectious disease prevention efforts focused on HIV/AIDS, TB, malaria, and emerging threats of global health security. Prior to serving as a Foreign Service Officer, Kamin worked with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. She was a Peace Corps volunteer in Niger and has a Master’s degree in Public Policy from the University of Michigan.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Foreign Aid, Interview, and USAID
Political Geography:: North America and United States of America

365. Germany's Special Relationship with Israel and the Recent Gaza War

Author:: Müge Aknur and İbrahim Saylan
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Novus Orbis: Journal of Politics & International Relations
Institution:: Department of International Relations, Karadeniz Technical University
Abstract:: German foreign policy towards Israel has been shaped by its historical and moral responsibility stemming from the Holocaust, with German governments creating a special relationship with Israel as a fundamental aspect of the post-war German national role conception. Germany has also assigned itself the role of a protector of Israel and committed to ensuring Israel’s security as a component of Germany’s reason of state (Staatsraison). Although this support has not been absolute or limitless and Germany has, as a founding member of the European Union, aligned its foreign policies with other European countries, this special relationship has nonetheless significantly influenced German foreign policy, particularly concerning the Palestine-Israel conflict. The catastrophic Gaza war that started in October 2023 has once again tested Germany’s special relationship with Israel. Despite substantial casualties on the Palestinian side, Germany has given strong support to Israel by affirming its right to self-defense, endorsing Israel in UN resolutions, increasing its arms exports to Israel, and supporting Israel in the international arena. However, these policies have jeopardized Germany’s international image and provoked extensive criticisms of moral and strategic blindness. This article seeks to analyze the impact of the special relationship and Staatsräson on Germany’s foreign policy towards the recent Gaza war, using Kalevi Holsti’s (1970) national role conception as a conceptual framework. While not unconditional and unlimited, the recent Gaza War demonstrates that Germany’s special relationship with Israel, which has been strengthened and deepened over decades, remains intact, even in the face of harsh criticism.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Bilateral Relations, Role Conceptions, 2023 Gaza War, and Staatsraison
Political Geography:: Europe, Israel, Palestine, Gaza, and Germany

366. Examining the Cyprus Issue through the Lens of the EU’s Periodic Progress Reports on Türkiye

Author:: Yusuf Avar
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Novus Orbis: Journal of Politics & International Relations
Institution:: Department of International Relations, Karadeniz Technical University
Abstract:: This study tries to comprehend and evaluate the significance of the Cyprus problem in Türkiye’s relations with the EU. In this sense, it aims to ascertain any potential shifts in the EU’s stance towards Cyprus and to elucidate the specific issues that the EU prioritized across several periods. Therefore, the EU’s 1998-2024 (except one not prepared in 2017) progress reports have undergone content analysis. It has been observed that the Cyprus issue has been discussed in every report and this situation proves how much the EU has given its importance to the issue. Within this framework, the concept of bottom-up Europeanization has been employed as a conceptual framework to explain the EU’s stance on the Cyprus issue. It is apparent that the Greek Cyprus, with Greece’s assistance, effectively transferred the Cyprus issue to the EU level, and no EU reports criticize Greece or the Greek Cyprus for their problem-solving efforts. Rather, most reports state that Türkiye and the Turkish Cypriots are the primary causes of the issue.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Bilateral Relations, Territorial Disputes, and European Union
Political Geography:: Europe, Turkey, Middle East, Greece, and Cyprus

367. Turkish Foreign Policy in 2020s: Designed for a "Gentle Giant"?

Author:: Emre Kalay
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Novus Orbis: Journal of Politics & International Relations
Institution:: Department of International Relations, Karadeniz Technical University
Abstract:: Türkiye does not refrain from utilizing its hard power components to influence the conjecture in its region in the 2020s. The utilizing of hard power instruments has different levels: producing and providing military equipment to one side of the conflict as in the Ukrainian case; in addition to producing and providing military equipment, providing technical assistance as in the Nagorno-Karabakh issue and Libya; using military power to confront, standoff and deter other parties as in Eastern Mediterranean question and, conducting extraterritorial military operations as in Syria case. What makes Türkiye a gentle giant is what comes with/after the utilization of hard power. If Türkiye’s interests are considered to be satisfied with/after the usage of hard power, Turkish foreign policy starts to send messages towards peace and prosperity in the region. By doing so, it tries to ensure the countries in question that Türkiye has no interest in further violent conflict or has the ambition to violate their sovereignty.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Diplomacy, Strategic Interests, and Hard Power
Political Geography:: Turkey, Ukraine, Middle East, Syria, and Nagorno-Karabakh

368. Understanding Lithuania's total defence approach in the face of Russian threat through principal–agent theory

Author:: Dovydas Rogulis
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Security and Defence Quarterly
Institution:: War Studies University
Abstract:: Identification of the principal and agent in the case study of Lithuania’s total defence approach by analysing official documents. Identification of what constitutes a total defence approach in Lithuania by scrutinising both official documents and semi-structured interviews. Determining the implementation of the total defence approach by considering official documents and semi-structured interviews. To understand the deeper context, qualitative research methods are employed. The analysis includes primary documents and semi-structured interviews, which provide the opportunity to identify casual links that may not be evident from document analysis alone. In the case study strategy, specifically focusing on the implementation of Lithuania’s total defence approach, a deeper understanding is essential, and this naturally requires the in-depth insights that the interview method can offer. Empirical data from Lithuania highlights that the misalignment is not only due to information asymmetry, shifting priorities, or weak oversight but also to differing perceptions of what total defence entails. The Lithuanian Parliament, as the principal, envisioned total defence as a broad, inclusive strategy involving all sectors of society and business. In contrast, the government and military, as agents, prioritised military professionalisation and NATO integration, treating civilian involvement as secondary. This difference in perspective led to the deprioritisation of elements, such as citizen mobilisation and resilience-building. The data also shows that inconsistent definitions of total defence among institutions hindered effective policy implementation. Thus, principal–agent theory needs to account for these perceptual differences, suggesting that misalignment can arise from interpretive differences, rather than deliberate manipulation.
Topic:: Security, Defense Policy, Military Security, and Principal-Agent Theory
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, and Lithuania

369. NATO enhanced forward presence in the Baltics: The nexus between the host and the framework nation

Author:: Donatas Palavenis
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Security and Defence Quarterly
Institution:: War Studies University
Abstract:: Following the events in Ukraine in 2014, North Atlantic Treaty Organization decided to strengthen its presence in three Baltic States (3B) by establishing an enhanced Forward Presence (eFP) in Estonia, led by the United Kingdom; Latvia, led by Canada; and Lithuania, led by Germany. This study examines the nexus between host nations (HNs) and the eFP framework nations (FNs) while referencing small state theories. The case study considered theoretical and analytical approaches, including classical realism, neorealism, constructivism, liberal theory, neoliberal theory, shelter theory, alliance theory, alliance shelter theory, theory of the free-riding concept of bandwagoning, strategic hedging, and the concept of neutrality to indicate small states’ behaviour and attitude towards bigger states. The more intensive nexus between FNs and HNs was evident in the 3B; however, it varied when analysing activities in military and economic fields. Empirical evidence related to the FN–HN states’ pair led to different theoretical considerations. The study’s outcome suggests that an individual bespoke approach towards the 3B’s is required. The alliance and alliance shelter theories should be regarded as the most appropriate, albeit not explicitly corresponding with first-hand findings.
Topic:: NATO, International Security, Alliance, Economic Security, and Small States
Political Geography:: Europe and Baltic States

370. Crowdsourcing for security in the age of hybrid threats

Author:: Imre Dobák
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Security and Defence Quarterly
Institution:: War Studies University
Abstract:: The study explores emerging forms of crowdsourcing solutions in cyberspace for security and national security purposes. It aims to systematise the main types of crowdsourcing solutions that involve civilian participation and contribute to the overall security of society in an increasingly broader context. The study begins with international examples of crowdsourcing, which can be visible in various areas of security. Identifying their specific features as they appear on open platforms helps to frame and examine the issue. Nowadays, the multitude of international security conflicts and processes indicate that the use of information and communications technology tools available at the individual level can effectively support the (national) security use of knowledge and expertise available in a distributed manner as a concentrated resource. The examples examined in this study indicate that the crowdsourcing approach can play a significant role in security and national security strategies across various areas. However, the adoption and effectiveness of crowdsourcing solutions in the voluntary contribution of individuals to security will undoubtedly be influenced by the nature of security events and the open involvement of members of society.
Topic:: Intelligence, National Security, Cybersecurity, Information Technology, Hybrid Threats, and Crowdsourcing
Political Geography:: Global Focus

371. Artificial intelligence as a moral agent: regulatory implications and a relational–contextual extension of Moor’s classification

Author:: Maciej Czyszczoń
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Security and Defence Quarterly
Institution:: War Studies University
Abstract:: This paper reassesses the regulatory value of James Moor’s four-level typology of machine morality, considering the European Artificial Intelligence Act (AI Act) and the forthcoming European Union (EU) liability directives. It asks whether Moors categories—ethical impact, implicit, explicit, and full moral agents—still capture the morally relevant properties of today’s generative, adaptive AI, and, if not, whether adding a relational−contextual dimension can better anticipate responsibility gaps. To address this gap, we introduce a novel relational–contextual dimension and a three-factor Responsibility Index (RI₃) that refines Moor’s typology by cross-classifying AI systems according to complexity, autonomy, and behavioural predictability for regulatory use. Adopting a strictly conceptual design, the study combines analytic philosophy with illustrative comparisons drawn from recent EU policy debates and high-profile incidents. It refines key terms, tests their coherence against statutory risk tiers, and distils the analysis into a three-factor matrix—complexity, autonomy, and predictability—that can be operationalised by lawmakers. The evaluation confirms that Moor’s typology remains a valuable baseline for distinguishing between passive and decision-making artefacts. Nevertheless, it also highlights how moral accountability is distributed within socio-technical networks. The proposed relational−contextual dimension, in conjunction with the regulatory matrix, aligns more closely with the AI Act’s risk logic and highlights scenarios in which moral agency is effectively delegated to the system. Moor’s framework should be retained but augmented: only by integrating relational criteria can legislators close emerging accountability gaps surrounding large-scale, autonomous AI. The matrix offers a pragmatic tool for aligning philosophical insight with concrete legal duties.
Topic:: Security, Regulation, Artificial Intelligence, Moor's Typology, Relational Agency, and European Union
Political Geography:: Global Focus and Europe

372. Moscow’s African relations: Unveiling Russia’s strategy in Africa and its impact on global politics

Author:: Seun Bamidele
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Security and Defence Quarterly
Institution:: War Studies University
Abstract:: This paper aims to investigate Russia’s growing involvement in African affairs and understand how its actions are shaped by broader geopolitical calculations. The research also seeks to assess the implications of this engagement for global peace and security. To achieve these objectives, the study employs case studies and geopolitical analysis as its primary methodological tools. It focuses on key African regions -North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Sahel region to examine Russia’s strategic goals and how they are pursued through specific initiatives and partnerships. This approach allows for a nuanced understanding of the regional variations and broader patterns in Russia’s African strategy. The findings reveal that over the past decade, Russia has significantly expanded its presence in Africa through a multifaceted strategy, which includes economic investments, military cooperation, and diplomatic outreach. By analysing Russia’s activities in the areas such as natural resource investments, military alliances, and political partnerships, the study identifies a clear alignment between Russia’s regional actions and global geopolitical ambitions. These engagements underscore a deliberate effort by Russia to reassert itself as a global power while reshaping the balance of influence in Africa. The study concludes that Russia’s strategic calculus in Africa is complex and deeply intertwined with its broader foreign policy goals. Its growing influence on the continent has significant implications for Africa’s political and economic development, as well as for international relations, in broad terms. By offering a comprehensive analysis of Russia’s strategies, the study enhances our understanding of the evolving dynamics of global power competition and the shifting geopolitical landscape.
Topic:: International Relations, Foreign Policy, International Security, Geopolitics, and Regional Stability
Political Geography:: Africa and Russia

373. Analysis of the power of drones and limitations of the anti-drone solutions on the Russian-Ukrainian battlefield

Author:: Mohamed Zied Chaari
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Security and Defence Quarterly
Institution:: War Studies University
Abstract:: The recent and rapid growth of low-cost, sophisticated drones, along with the associated technological challenges, is a notable feature of warfare tactics. As the Russians and Ukrainians become more dependent on these cost-effective yet crude drones, they establish a new battlefield characterised by high efficacy and low cost. Both Russian and Ukrainian forces launch drones to target each other. Drones locate their targets, perhaps with low efficacy, but they can cause significant destruction. Drones can destroy and carbonise tanks, which cost about $4 million each. However, the unit price of drones does not exceed $1,000. The limitations and ineffectiveness of most anti-drone devices currently on the market, including lasers, high-power microwaves, and radio frequency jammers, are evident in the increasing ubiquity of drones. This case study suggests that current counter-drone technologies are unable to neutralise kamikaze and weaponised drones on both sides. As a result of these failures, Russian and Ukrainian forces employ new technologies, such as metal grids and nylon net barriers, which are effective in destroying and stopping drones to some extent. This article presents a case study involving the reliance on drones by both warring sides, who have also been utilising anti-drone tactics since February 2022. The work investigates the solutions currently available to both adversaries for reducing the impact of weaponised drones on the battlefield. This study evaluates them and demonstrates how their inherent drawbacks could motivate the development of new strategies and countermeasures against armed drones.
Topic:: Security, Defense Policy, Geopolitics, Weapons, Drones, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, and Ukraine

374. The hero in military education and media narrative: Possibilities of development of values by media education

Author:: Pedro C. Magalhães
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Security and Defence Quarterly
Institution:: War Studies University
Abstract:: From the perspective of imaginary studies, as manifested in diverse mythologies, the hero is the one who seeks to prove personal value in the face of hostile conditions, confronting apparently invincible opponents to defend people and/or communities. In this regard, we investigated whether the construction of the hero figure in media narratives is congruent with the archetype of the hero as manifested in the military model of professional training, which is based on tradition and the ethics of sacrifice, from the point of view of military ethos. The research method involves bibliographical research and an analysis of media narratives, which led to an elaborate set of guidelines for carrying out media education in the armed forces (in military training courses) to foster the military ethos. This research concludes that the concept of the hero was transformed after the Cold War, giving rise to the anti-hero, who does not defend collective values but contrasts with the figure of the hero typical of military culture. Considering the characteristics of new generations and the current challenges of media culture, this work proposes some guidelines for developing military values through media culture: role-playing exercises, production of media on historical figures, and analysis of moral dilemmas based on historical and fictional narratives. The use of narratives includes, but goes beyond, educational approaches focusing on media skills, since, in addition to promoting skills aimed at understanding and producing media messages, such narratives also emphasise the methodologies and techniques aimed at developing students’ ethics and vision of the world with regard to military training courses.
Topic:: Education, Media, Narrative, Heroism, and Military
Political Geography:: Global Focus

375. Theoretical foundation of a proposed methodology and analysis framework for political instability risk assessment

Author:: Zisis Kyrgos and Ippokratis Daskalakis
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Security and Defence Quarterly
Institution:: War Studies University
Abstract:: The last decade has seen the most cases of political instability and internal security incidents among all the decades of the 20th and 21st centuries so far. This fact alone indicates a necessity to address the factors contributing to the phenomenon in a way prospectively usable in decision and policy-making procedures. An analysis methodology taking into consideration the factors contributing to such cases would be a valuable tool to achieve the above necessity. Consequently, the objective of this research is to specify these factors. The methodology used to determine these factors involves a case study of historical cases of internal state unrest and instability. Fifteen cases were selected for analysis at random, based on the data obtained from the Uppsala Conflict Data Programme. The cases selected were analysed based on the parties involved in the conflict, the conflict’s historical and political contexts, factors contributing to its occurrence according to relevant bibliography, actions taken by the rival groups, potential external involvement in the conflict, and other points of interest relevant to the study. The factors determined include the social entity’s relative size, denial of rights, information flow, geography, leadership, means of projecting power, environmental conditions, repression/freedom of action, and triggering event. The above factors were cross-referenced with different theories relevant to the subject under examination.
Topic:: Security, National Security, Instability, and Risk Assessment
Political Geography:: Global Focus

376. Anchoring NATO’s eastern flank: A neoclassical realist analysis of Romania’s Black Sea policy and its strategic interaction with Turkey

Author:: Zoltán Lechner
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Security and Defence Quarterly
Institution:: War Studies University
Abstract:: This study addresses two specific objectives. First, it aims to examine Romania’s foreign and security policy towards the Black Sea region and explain how and why Bucharest’s position in regional power dynamics has changed over time. Second, it aims to describe how Romania’s and Turkey’s strategic perspectives on the Black Sea relate to each other. The paper employs a qualitative, theory-informed case study methodology to examine Romania’s foreign and security policy in the Black Sea region. This is complemented by a comparative foreign policy analysis to explore the relationship between Romania’s and Turkey’s strategic perspectives. Accordingly, the research design integrates both single-case analysis and paired comparison to capture the dynamics of strategic regional interaction. Using the theory of neoclassical realism, the paper describes Romania’s strategic initiatives in the Black Sea region, explains how structural and domestic influences have shaped Bucharest’s foreign and security policy, and examines the complex relationship between the regional strategies of Romania and Turkey, by identifying the common and divergent interests of the two states. Romania’s Black Sea policy has been shaped by both external variables—structural power dynamics affecting the region—as well as internal variables—elite perceptions and the shifting dynamics of domestic politics. The relationship between the Black Sea strategies of Romania and Turkey can be described as a mixture of convergence, rooted in common security interests, and divergence, fuelled by distinct threat perceptions, domestic political dynamics, and regional ambitions.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, NATO, International Security, and Regional Politics
Political Geography:: Russia, Turkey, Romania, and Black Sea

377. Initiatives to prevent radicalisation in Spanish and French educational establishments

Author:: Ryszard Maciej Machnikowski
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Security and Defence Quarterly
Institution:: War Studies University
Abstract:: The radicalisation of young people leading to extremism is considered a serious security challenge in Europe. As the case of the foiled attack at the Taylor Swift concert in Vienna shows, this phenomenon can occur anywhere. In response to this challenge, Western European countries have developed a number of prevention projects targeting young people. This article presents and analyses the main educational initiatives implemented in France and Spain designed to reduce the risk of children and young people being radicalised and influenced by extremist ideologies. The data necessary for the preparation of this text were collected during study visits to France (Paris) and Spain (Madrid, Salamanca, Barcelona, and Malaga), which took place between 2020 and 2023. During the visits, we carried out numerous queries and in-depth interviews with French and Spanish experts dealing with the issues analysed. The article points out the importance of cooperation among state security institutions, the educational sector, and families at risk of radicalisation as well as the need for the coordination of various preventive measures. Due to the differences in the political systems of France and Spain, the former adopted a strategy of developing and implementing deradicalisation and prevention activities at the central level, while in Spain, preference was given to the regional and local levels for the execution of such projects.
Topic:: Education, Radicalization, Assessment, and Violence Prevention
Political Geography:: Europe, France, and Spain

378. Collaboration among NATO’s defence innovators: Lessons from Poland

Author:: Ryan Atkinson
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Security and Defence Quarterly
Institution:: War Studies University
Abstract:: The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) is responding to security challenges arising from emerging technologies by leveraging national and multilateral innovation networks to strengthen collective defence and accelerate technological adaptation. NATO partnerships provide a research scope encompassing key policy developments on specific technologies, including artificial intelligence, autonomy, quantum, and data. Poland’s innovation ecosystem is analysed to highlight how public–private partnerships with NATO promote alliance-wide strategic objectives aligned with national innovation networks. This comparative case study analyses NATO’s Defence Innovation Accelerator for the North Atlantic (DIANA) and the national innovation networks of allies, as demonstrated by the case of Poland. Data was gathered from policy documents, industry reports, and other publicly available sources. Poland’s proactive innovation strategy is a model for utilising local strengths to tackle global security concerns and test facilities and accelerator programmes under NATO DIANA. Poland’s innovation model provides a significant case study that offers valuable insights for future research and development. Combating the challenges posed by evolving technologies requires adaptable security measures, demonstrated by various examples from Poland’s local accelerators and test centres. NATO’s approach, involving industry partnerships and defence innovation, provides a model for other allies. The case of innovation in Poland provides a generalisable methodology for studying other national approaches to innovation aligned with the NATO accelerators.
Topic:: Security, Defense Policy, NATO, Science and Technology, and Innovation
Political Geography:: Europe and Poland

379. USSR-Africa Relations in the 1970s and 1980s: An Analytical Proposal of Motivations, Conditioning Elements and Impacts

Author:: Paulo Gilberto Fagundes Visentini
Publication Date:: 10-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:: Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:: The actuality of the theme of USSR relations with African countries in the 1970s and 1980s is grounded in the revision of a dimension of the mainstream historiography of the Cold War and in the current Russia-Africa interaction, which has deeper roots, essential for its comprehension. The USSR-Africa relations constitute a historiographical gap, dominated by subtly instrumental works produced in the context of the late escalation of the Cold War on the continent. Within this framework, the present text is based on ongoing research. In two previous articles, here taken as a starting point, the focus was on the African Revolutions of the 1970s and 1980s, followed by the analysis of African Marxist Military Regimes during the same period. From this point forth, relevant matters emerged, such as the profile of the relations between the Second and Third Worlds, and the doubling of the number of self-proclaimed socialist states with a Marxist-Leninist orientation, all of which emerged in the periphery (rising from 14 to 30). Two-thirds of these new regimes were African. In this context, the present article examines the Soviet Union (USSR) relations with the African States that were its allies in the 1970s and 1980s. The analysis focuses on the reciprocal motivations, the conditioning elements and the resulting impacts and legacies. This process gained significance belatedly, within a short period of two decades (1969-89), targeting a limited number of countries, yet it was intense (sometimes motivated by Cuba) and had a considerable impact on the transformation of Africa. It is argued that African nations were not “pawns” of the Cold War in their cooperation with Moscow, nor that the USSR pursued a systemic project of “exporting the revolution” or a geopolitical Grand Design for Africa (Coker 1985)
Topic:: International Relations, Foreign Policy, History, Socialism/Marxism, Geopolitics, and Soviet Union
Political Geography:: Africa and Soviet Union

380. Mapping Algeria's Foreign Policy in Africa Through Complex Network Analysis: Security and Energy Dynamics (2019-2025)

Author:: Mourad Benguita
Publication Date:: 10-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:: Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:: In recent years, Africa has emerged as a pivotal space of geopolitical realignment, strategic competition, and region-wide integration experiments. The continent’s growing significance is fueled by its energy potential, evolving security configurations, and the multiplication of cross-border infrastructure and connectivity initiatives. As states navigate this increasingly interdepen-dent environment, foreign policies have shifted from traditional bilateralism to more fluid and multi-layered forms of engagement, including overlapping alliances, regional corridors, and transnational institutional frameworks.Within this continental transformation, Algeria has embarked on a recalibrated foreign policy, particularly since 2019. Internally, the Hirak pro-test movement and the subsequent reconfiguration of the political order ushe-red in demands for a more assertive and diversified external policy posture. Externally, Algeria has faced growing competition over African influence, particularly from regional rivals like Morocco, which has reasserted itself diplomatically across the continent, and from global powers, both traditional (France and the EU) and emerging (China, Russia, Turkey and Gulf states). This dual pressure has compelled Algeria to adopt a more proactive and systemic approach to its African policy.
Topic:: Security, Foreign Policy, Geopolitics, Energy, Regional Politics, and Network Analysis
Political Geography:: Africa, Algeria, and North Africa

381. Françafrique, Neocolonialism and the Political Economy of Coups d'État in the Franc Zone (2020-2023)

Author:: Mussa Jau and Karine de Souza Silva
Publication Date:: 10-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:: Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:: In recent years, Francophone African countries have been the scene of coups d’état launched by the military class dissatisfied with the regimes in power between 2020 and 2023. With the events that occurred in Mali, Burkina Faso, Gabon, Niger and Guinea-Conakry, it was possible to observe some similarities in the justifications invoked by the protagonists of the coups, such as: economic depression, insecurity or the lack of progress in the fight against terrorism, corruption and, last but not least, the fight against economic imperialism and French neocolonialism on the continent.The population appears to be aligned with the ideals of the current military regimes and demonstrates its discontent with France’s track record of diplomatic, military, and economic activity on the continent. Consequently, incisive demonstrations were organized in front of French embassies in practically all affected territories — in which the population demanded the expulsion of the French diplomatic corps, the withdrawal of African countries from the Franc Zone3, and consequently the deinstitutionalization of the CFA Franc4, delimited here as the object of the research.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Political Economy, Coup, Regional Politics, and Neocolonialism
Political Geography:: Africa, Europe, France, Mali, Niger, Gabon, Burkina Faso, and Guinea-Conakry

382. Pan-African-Foreign Policy Theory: A Conceptual Significance of Foreign Policy Analysis Within Policy Agenda Setting for Africa

Author:: Chris Landsberg, Sandile Moloi, and Oscar Van Heerden
Publication Date:: 10-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:: Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:: This article claims that Pan-Africanism Foreign Policy Theory is about Africa’s states’ foreign policy. This claim and theory have not been developed before. The closest argument to our Pan-Africanism Foreign Policy Theory is the writing in 2009 by McDougal (2009), which contends that, as the continental states and its premier integration bodies seek to craft a new-Pan-Africanism, African foreign policies should be based on three aspects: cultural and political unity; Afro-centric development, and the Afri-can conceptualisation of Ubuntu. We lay further claim that Pan-Africanism is rarely analysed by reviewing the goals pursued by states, specifically those of security, prosperity, and world reorganisation. This paper aims to make a constructive contribution to the overall literature by examining Pan-Africanism as African foreign policy, given that little has been written about it from this viewpoint.
Topic:: Security, Foreign Policy, Economics, Pan-Africanism, and Regional Politics
Political Geography:: Africa

383. Women’s Rights in Islam: The Responsibility for Women’s Education

Author:: Norany Sman, Ke Sambo, and Harth Bunhe
Publication Date:: 02-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Review of Human Rights
Institution:: Society of Social Science Academics (SSSA)
Abstract:: Generalizations about Islam and human rights in Islam are seen replete in today's media, especially the misconceptions on Muslim women's rights. With an emphasis on the historical, theological, and social aspects of women's access to knowledge in Islamic tradition, this paper aims to explore the rights and obligations of women in Islam regarding education. It also discusses the harmony between women's rights to education and the value of the obligation of being nurturers and caretakers within the family. The paper highlights the continued necessity for efforts toward gender equality in education from an Islamic perspective while also taking into account the difficulties and advancements in women's education in nations with a majority of Muslims.
Topic:: Education, Islam, Religion, Women, and Muslims
Political Geography:: Global Focus

384. The Red Door: Blood and soil between Italy and Pakistan

Author:: Lorenzo Rinelli
Publication Date:: 02-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Review of Human Rights
Institution:: Society of Social Science Academics (SSSA)
Abstract:: This article advances the assertion that in Italy, the transition from economic citizenship to social and political citizenship remains unresolved. By employing a critical legal studies approach, I intend to discuss the social dysfunctions of the current Italian citizenship law by going back to the tragic fate of Saman Abbasandthe dynamics of isolation and marginalization of migrant communities in the multimillion-dollar agri-food Italian industry. This move entailsa historical and legal excursus on Italian migrationdynamics that close in on recent attempts toattunecitizenship laws toItalian societyin the context of contemporary global capitalism.
Topic:: Race, Immigration, Citizenship, Gender, and Agri-food
Political Geography:: Pakistan, Europe, South Asia, and Italy

385. Soviet Nationality Conflict: Structural Legacies and Ethnic Conflicts and in the Post-Soviet Space

Author:: Marco Marsili
Publication Date:: 02-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Review of Human Rights
Institution:: Society of Social Science Academics (SSSA)
Abstract:: This article examines how Soviet nationalities policy shaped post-Soviet ethnic conflicts. It argues that Soviet ethnofederalism—while promoting nominal autonomy—entrenched ethnic identities and borders, enabling later fragmentation. Using a structural-historical approach, it traces continuities in institutions, elite networks, and symbolic geographies from the USSR to contemporary disputes. Case studies from Transnistria, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and Nagorno-Karabakh show how autonomy structures fostered secessionist mobilization. Crimea and Donbas illustrate how Russia has revived Soviet-era institutions and narratives for geopolitical aims. The study reconceptualizes Soviet federalism as a legacy regime, highlighting durable path dependency in identity, legitimacy, and violence, and challenging collapse-as-rupture narratives in favor of continuity in post-imperial politics.
Topic:: Genocide, Human Rights, Migration, Ethnic Cleansing, State Building, Soviet Union, Post-Soviet Space, and Nationality
Political Geography:: Russia and Soviet Union

386. R2P at 20: Quo Vadis? A discussion connected to the English School perspective on international relations (IR)

Author:: Tor Dahl-Eriksen
Publication Date:: 02-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Review of Human Rights
Institution:: Society of Social Science Academics (SSSA)
Abstract:: In September 2005 the UN General Assembly adopted R2P, the universal principle to protect all populations from mass atrocities specified as genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and ethnic cleansing. Now, more than 20 years later, the vision from 2005 is far from realized. Towards a rather depressive background dominated by violent conflicts where mass atrocities still frequently occur, this article discusses what went wrong and why, and it tries to use accumulated insights to search for signs that may lead to a better future. By connecting the discussion to the English School theoretical perspective on international relations (IR), the article tries to explain why different challenges often are difficult to deal with, but not by definition impossible to overcome.
Topic:: International Relations, Sovereignty, Responsibility to Protect (R2P), UN Security Council, Atrocities, and Early Warning
Political Geography:: Global Focus

387. Communication Strategies and Online Political Attack: TikTok as a Global Electoral Battleground

Author:: Daniele Battista and Alessandra Petrone
Publication Date:: 02-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Review of Human Rights
Institution:: Society of Social Science Academics (SSSA)
Abstract:: This research examines the strategies and tactics of political campaigns on TikTok, a rapidly growing platform, highlighting both successful methods and the ethical challenges tied to violent and polarizing content. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study identifies key strategies in successful political campaigns, such as hashtags, challenges, influencer collaborations, targeted messaging, and content adaptation. Dominant themes include "issue awareness" and "policy explanation." The study links specific TikTok strategies to campaign success while noting the negative impact of unregulated content on political discourse. The research offers practical recommendations for campaign strategists to adopt responsible strategies and calls for continued research in this evolving area of digital political campaigns.
Topic:: Communications, Elections, Social Media, Polarization, and TikTok
Political Geography:: Global Focus

388. Zeitenwende in Germany – a new realistic worldview and its implications

Author:: Melanie Carina Schmoll
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Military and Strategic Studies
Institution:: Centre for Military, Security and Strategic Studies
Abstract:: The profound changes in the global security environment have prompted a fundamental reassessment of foreign, security, and defense policy in Germany. Politically framed as a Zeitenwende (turning point), this shift is accompanied by an increased emphasis on Kriegstüchtigkeit (readiness for war), defense preparedness, and calls for a broader societal “mental rearmament.” This article examines Germany’s evolving security orientation as an expression of a transformed strategic self-understanding and situates it within the framework of realist theories of international relations. The article argues that Germany’s current security policy transformation is not driven by hegemonic ambitions, but rather by a logic of autonomy maximization. In response to a more fragile international order, growing uncertainties within multilateral institutions, and rising expectations regarding collective defense, Germany is adapting its policies in a realist manner to altered power and threat constellations. While Germany’s embeddedness in NATO and the European Union remains intact, long-standing self-imposed constraints rooted in historical experience are increasingly being reassessed. Against this backdrop, the article analyzes the societal and political tensions generated by the renewed focus on military capability. Central to this discussion are Germany’s historically ambivalent relationship with its armed forces, debates over the potential reintroduction of compulsory military service, and questions of democratic oversight and parliamentary control. Particular attention is paid to symbolic and institutional efforts aimed at re-anchoring the Bundeswehr within society, most notably the introduction of a National Veterans Day in 2025. The article concludes that the call for Kriegstüchtigkeit extends far beyond a narrow defense policy agenda. It represents a deeper renegotiation of Germany’s civil–military relations, political culture, and national identity. Whether the Zeitenwende will prove sustainable ultimately depends on the ability to reconcile enhanced military effectiveness with democratic legitimacy, societal acceptance, and continued parliamentary accountability.
Topic:: Defense Policy, NATO, National Security, and International Security
Political Geography:: Europe and Germany

389. ‘King Makers And The King Breakers’ Perspectives On The Role Of Intelligence Services In Shaping Geo-Politics And Power Dynamics At Global Level.

Author:: Matthew Mare
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Military and Strategic Studies
Institution:: Centre for Military, Security and Strategic Studies
Abstract:: The goal of the research was to demonstrate the role of the intelligence service as king makers and king breakers shape geo-politics and power dynamics at global level. The theory by Kent was the fulcrum of this research and the CIA-BRICS power dynamics were cited to bring the nexus between intelligence service and the geo-politics are at play in shaping world events. The background to the interaction between intelligence service and geo-politics was well articulated. The study relied on secondary data sources and the research went on to formulate applied theory of intelligence in global power dynamics. The study noted that, world over and western world in particular the intelligence service is the fulcrum of making and breaking kings. The major findings of the study were that countries which politicize intelligence for personal glory suffers from external interference and political convulsions than those that differentiate the two. It was also noted that, the CIA play an important role in the American foreign policy by shaping and creating the future the country, for the USA to remain a unipolar giant. The study observed that the intelligence is objective in a stable and mature democracy than in autocratic political environment. It was noted that, most countries think of security interms of military hardware and overlook intelligence. In mature democracies intelligence conduct covert and overt operations to safeguard national interests over interests and vice versa in non-democratic states. In nondemocratic states the diplomatic missions are packed with political opponents, it is a political way of dealing with perceived political opponents to the leader. Whereas in mature democracy, diplomatic missions are packed with declared and undeclared intelligence officers to push the national agenda. The study created applied Kentism in foreign policy. The study made several permutations in the global arena on how the intelligence will make and make kings through direct interference, regime change, assassinations, destabilizing weaker states, induced coups, discrediting states through NGOs and CSOs and hybrid warfare to achieve the Western interests.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Intelligence, Geopolitics, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Strategic Interests, and Power Dynamics
Political Geography:: North America, Global Focus, and United States of America

390. Cutting Through the Tangled Webs of Civil and Military Aviation Toward a Practical Cybersecurity Framework

Author:: Kristen Csenkey and Jason Furlong
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Military and Strategic Studies
Institution:: Centre for Military, Security and Strategic Studies
Abstract:: North American defence and security require trusted partnerships to detect, deter, and defeat threats from foreign adversaries. The United States and Canada cooperate through the North American Aerospace Defense (NORAD) organization to build a layered network of defence that jointly enhances operational capabilities with a traditional emphasis on the air domain. However, as the aviation ecosystem becomes increasingly digitized and interconnected, it is essential that strategic and high-level policy decisions be supported with the necessary conceptual tools to keep the skies safe. We propose that one way to deepen cooperation in aviation cybersecurity is through the integration of a human-centric framework. In this article, we introduce, define, and contextualize our Inter-Organization Learning Culture Framework for policy-makers and academics alike. The integration of this framework has implications for NORAD in terms of cooperation, modernization initiatives, and the continued protection of the interlinked civil and defence aviation ecosystems.
Topic:: Defense Policy, Cybersecurity, Aviation, and North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD)
Political Geography:: Canada, North America, and United States of America

391. Examining the Transformation of Israel's Military into a Professional Force through the Lens of Huntington's Civil-Military Relations Theory

Author:: Yaron Katz
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Military and Strategic Studies
Institution:: Centre for Military, Security and Strategic Studies
Abstract:: The concept of "civil-military relations" pertains to the interaction between a nation's armed forces. Huntington's theory encompasses a normative component that defines the clear boundaries separating civilians from military personnel. The research examines if Huntington's arguments are relevant in the contemporary context of the events of October 7, 2023 and the failure of the IDF to protect the country from the south border with Gaza. It is argued that a new strategy for civil-military relations is essential because the IDF's reliance on high-tech solutions must be reconsidered from strategic and political standpoint, as examined by this research.
Topic:: Armed Forces, Israel Defense Forces (IDF), Civil-Military Relations, Military, and Political Science
Political Geography:: Middle East, Israel, Palestine, and Gaza

392. Between Sun Tzu, Clausewitz, and Stalin: A Synthetic character of Mao Zedong’s Military Thought

Author:: Damian Winczewski
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Military and Strategic Studies
Institution:: Centre for Military, Security and Strategic Studies
Abstract:: In modern literature on military thought of Mao Zedong, authors puts a lot of emphasis on its relationship with classical Chinese thought. Many focus on the influence of Sun Tzu, or Clausewitz. In this article I would like to focus mainly on influences of the Marxist thought, through which as I think the Chinese strategist interpreted the art of war. I will compare Mao Zedong's views on the nature and ethics of war with the statements of Marxist classics on these issues. In this way, his theses, allegedly derived from classical Chinese philosophy, gain a wider context in which the influence of Stalinist vulgarization of Marxism on Mao's philosophical reflections in relation to war is quite visible.
Topic:: War, Military Affairs, Philosophy, Mao Zedong, Carl von Clausewitz, Sun Tzu, Josef Stalin, and Ethics
Political Geography:: China, Asia, and Global Focus

393. The Canadian Army in Action and the Advance of the Tank: Revitalizing the Canadian War Spirit Through Film

Author:: Cameron Telch
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Military and Strategic Studies
Institution:: Centre for Military, Security and Strategic Studies
Abstract:: The 1917 The Canadian Army in Action and the Advance of the Tank was a Canadian film that depicted the actions of Canadian soldiers during the Battle of Courcelette in September 1916. The film was propagandized by different Canadian national newspapers in 1917 to highlight the fighting spirit of the Canadians in France amid the horrors of the Great War. This article will argue that the media’s representation of the film was to safeguard the morale of Canadians during a time in which most Canadians were demoralized due to the ongoing war on the Western Front.
Topic:: Armed Forces, Media, Film, and World War I
Political Geography:: Canada and North America

394. The Evolution of Japan's Limited Sovereignty: From the Era of Unequal Treaties to the Japan-U.S. Alliance

Author:: Yukio Sakurai
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Rest: Journal of Politics and Development
Institution:: Centre for Strategic Research and Analysis (CESRAN)
Abstract:: This paper examines the evolution of Japan's limited sovereignty across two distinct historical periods: the nineteenth-century era of unequal treaties and the post– World War II era shaped by the Japan–U.S. alliance. In the earlier period, treaties imposed by Western powers curtailed Japan’s jurisdictional and tariff autonomy. Paradoxically, these constraints catalysed rapid modernisation and a national drive to restore sovereign equality. In contrast, the post-war period introduced a different model of limited sovereignty: one characterised by strategic dependence through the Japan–U.S. Security Treaty and the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA). These legal arrangements grant the United States significant military rights on Japanese territory, including base maintenance and jurisdictional authority, raising ongoing concerns about Japan’s territorial and legal autonomy. Further tensions arise from the opaque operation of the Japan–U.S. Security Consultative Committee, whose limited transparency and perceived imbalance in representation have prompted criticism regarding undue U.S. influence. Evolving regional security dynamics and potential shifts in U.S. foreign policy further complicate Japan’s sovereignty posture. Additionally, growing secrecy surrounding national security and the technical nature of defence policy hinder public deliberation and raise broader questions about democratic accountability. Employing an interdisciplinary framework that draws from international law, political science, and history, this study analyses the legal instruments and socio-political contexts that shaped these two periods. By comparing externally imposed and internally accepted constraints on sovereignty, the paper contributes to a deeper understanding of how nations negotiate autonomy within global power structures. This analysis, grounded in a comprehensive review of English and Japanese scholarship, offers a nuanced perspective on Japan’s evolving relationship with limited sovereignty and its implications for democratic governance and strategic positioning in East Asia.
Topic:: Sovereignty, Treaties and Agreements, Bilateral Relations, Alliance, and Autonomy
Political Geography:: Japan, Asia, North America, and United States of America

395. A New Model for Measuring the Human Development Index: A Comparison of the Organisation of Turkic States and the EU

Author:: Abdullah Zübeyr Şekerci
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Rest: Journal of Politics and Development
Institution:: Centre for Strategic Research and Analysis (CESRAN)
Abstract:: The “Human Development Index Report”, which measures the welfare levels of societies, was first prepared by the United Nations Development Programme in 1990. There are certain criteria in the preparation of this index. In our study, we propose a method that integrates the multiple linear regression equation and the exponential smoothing method to obtain this index. The ordinary least squares method is used for the multiple linear regression equation. The purpose of using multiple linear regression here is not to ignore the relationship between the input criteria and the output when reaching the Human Development Index. In addition, by using exponential smoothing, which weights the input data, the model produced an estimation with greater predictive accuracy and statistical robustness. Future estimates are made with these two methods. In this context, the level of welfare of the five main members of the Organisation of Turkish States was examined in comparison with the five leading countries of the European Union. The criteria used are selected from United Nations Development Program reports and literature. These criteria are gross national product per capita, life expectancy at birth, unemployment and CO2 emissions per capita. The selected criteria data were processed with the multiple linear regression and exponential smoothing methods in MS Excel between 1990 and 2023. With this method, it is aimed to create an equation to estimate the 2030-2040 welfare level. According to the results, the Organisation of Turkish States Region WL converges to the European Union Region WL towards the 2030-40 period. It can be said that a new method is presented for calculating the welfare level of countries.
Topic:: European Union, Forecast, Human Development, and Organization of Turkic States
Political Geography:: Europe, Turkey, and Middle East

396. The Emergence of Hybrid Warfare and the Future of Global Security: A Comparative Study of Russian and NATO’s Hybrid Infrastructure in Ukraine

Author:: Shahzada Rahim Abbas
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Rest: Journal of Politics and Development
Institution:: Centre for Strategic Research and Analysis (CESRAN)
Abstract:: The paper discusses the dynamical nature of fifth-generation warfare, which is gradually becoming a new way of waging war. In the past two decades, there has been a fierce debate on the nature and methods of fifth-generation warfare across the international security forums. Within these discussions, the term “Hybrid warfare” has grabbed the attention of various security experts. Although the discourse of “Hybrid warfare” initially emerged in the mainstream sphere during the 2006 Lebanon war, it gained prominence after the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014, which triggered debates on the nature of warfare in the 21st century. Russian President Vladimir Putin’s Military doctrine “Escalate to deescalate” is very clear about the Russian red line for NATO expansion on the Eastern European shores that aims at least aggression with maximum gains. The article enquires about the wider analytical and historical notions of security to sum up the discussion on the new military strategies and tactics on security. The Russian operation in Ukraine with hybrid warfare methods will be the focal point of the discussion throughout the article. The article will also discuss the well-established hybrid warfare infrastructure of Russia vis-à-vis NATO to further elaborate on the discourse of modern armed conflict. To theoretically explore the topic, this study will consider the growing challenges to international security amidst the hybrid warfare settings through the lens of strategic theory.
Topic:: NATO, International Security, Hybrid Warfare, Fifth Generation Warfare, and Security Infrastructure
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, Eurasia, and Ukraine

397. Implications of Military Aid on Global Arms Sales and Productio

Author:: Zekeri Momoh
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Rest: Journal of Politics and Development
Institution:: Centre for Strategic Research and Analysis (CESRAN)
Abstract:: This study examines the implications of increasing military aid on arms sales and production. This study adopted the historical research design, with data collected from secondary sources, and content analysis was used for its analysis. The study argues that increasing military aid to especially belligerent states has influenced global arms sales and production. It equally argues that the consequences of the cumulative military aid to Israel and Ukraine include human rights violations, humanitarian crisis, growth in arms production, increasing military budgets and revenue for arms manufacturers, among others. Nevertheless, justifications of the military aid are to ensure the survival of the state and its sovereignty, as well as the survival of the political regime. Lastly, this study recommends, among other things, that the United Nations Security Council should employ a more democratic approach to the ongoing Israel-Gaza war and Russia-Ukraine war to produce a win-win outcome for the interests of international peace and security, as against the interests of conflict profiteers from military aid.
Topic:: Military Aid, War, Arms Sales, and International Security
Political Geography:: United States of America, Ukraine, Israel, Middle East, Europe, and North America

398. Liberty, Affect, and The Rise of Populism

Author:: Colin Anthony MacNairn
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Rest: Journal of Politics and Development
Institution:: Centre for Strategic Research and Analysis (CESRAN)
Abstract:: In this essay, I reinterpret Hartley B. Alexander’s early 20th-century account of liberty and democracy in light of the 21st-century populist resurgence, integrating the economic analysis of Jonathan Hopkin and Mark Blyth. By combining Alexander’s concerns surrounding the ethical collapse of democratic citizenship with Hopkin and Blyth’s diagnosis of structural economic disenfranchisement, I construct a dual account of populism’s rise as the convergence of moral atrophy and institutional decay. From Trump’s America to Modi’s India, populism emerges as a liberty weaponised against itself. I argue that populism is a condition wherein the form of democracy is preserved, but its substance is debased, thereby reduced to spectacle, demagoguery, and institutional dysfunction. Drawing on specific examples and institutional analysis, I further argue for a reconstruction of liberty grounded in moral formation and institutional responsiveness, thus offering a normative pathway beyond the populist condition.
Topic:: Economics, Ethics, Populism, Liberty, and Political Philosophy
Political Geography:: India, South America, North America, and United States of America

399. India in a Changing Global Order: Geopolitical Challenges and Strategic Interests in the Indo-Myanmar Borderlands

Author:: Manashi Parashar
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Rest: Journal of Politics and Development
Institution:: Centre for Strategic Research and Analysis (CESRAN)
Abstract:: This paper examines the borderlands of India and Myanmar as a critical site of India’s geopolitical strategy in the context of its Act East Policy and broader regional ambitions. It analyses the complex security challenges arising from cross-border insurgency, narco-trafficking, and China’s growing influence in Myanmar, compounded by internal political instability across the border. The study evaluates India’s key connectivity initiatives—such as the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project and the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway—and their role in enhancing regional integration. A balanced approach is emphasised in this paper, which highlights the importance of bilateral cooperation in border management and counterinsurgency. It argues that India must align its security priorities with economic engagement to safeguard its interests and strengthen its strategic presence on the Indo-Myanmar frontier.
Topic:: Geopolitics, Regional Integration, Borders, and Strategic Interests
Political Geography:: South Asia, India, and Myanmar

400. Gods and Stars: The Use of Mythological Roots in the Chinese Space Program. Analysis

Author:: Krzysztof Jan Karwowski
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Nowa Polityka Wschodnia
Institution:: Faculty of Political Science and International Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń
Abstract:: This study examines the Chinese space program from a cultural perspective. The program, in previous two decades, has achieved a series of achievements, including the successful deployment of rocket launching systems, manned space missions, satellites, and space probes exploring the Moon, asteroids, and Mars. A key focus of this research is the naming convention and promotional strategies associated with the Chinese space activities. These names and symbols are rooted in a cultural tradition completely different and contrasting with the Greco-Roman heritage commonly adopted by the traditional space powers i.e. USA, USSR/Russia, and Europe. The paper involved cataloguing, classifying, and analysing the source materials— specifically, counting and explaining the mission codes developed by China. Missions were categorised into major thematic origins: (A) Mythology, cosmology, culture, (B) Political/communist-related content, (C) Astronomy, astronomers, space-inspired concepts, discoverers and science, (D) Technological jargon and (E) Other. The findings indicate that despite its history as a communist state with periods of distancing from ancient traditions, China’s space program has become a prominent platform for promoting Chinese symbolism. Cultural symbols, along with Chinese scientific and astronomical concepts, overwhelmingly dominate the other thematic categories.
Topic:: Culture, Soft Power, Smart Power, Space Program, and Nomenclature
Political Geography:: China and Asia

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COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS