Content Type: Journal Article - CIAO Search Results

251. Thomas Buergenthal and the Americas: A Comprehensive Contribution to Human Rights Protection

Author:: Kai Ambos
Publication Date:: 01-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Institution:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Abstract:: While Thomas Buergenthal’s contribution to the field of human rights is certainly of global importance, it had a particular impact in the Americas, especially during the crucial initial phase of the Inter-American Human Rights System (IAHRS) with the Court as its core institution on which Buergenthal served as one of the first group of judges from 1979 to 1991. In a nutshell, Buergenthal’s contribution may be characterized as a comprehensive and decisive effort to the regional protection of human rights in a threefold way: prudent proactivity (A.), active promotion and optimization (B.), interaction and critical follow-up (C.). At the same time, Buergenthal pursued a strategic-progressive approach which offers valuable lessons for the protection of human rights going well beyond the Americas. Buergenthal’s contribution to human rights and to international law in general cannot be overestimated. His principled and at the same time prudent strategic approach will be greatly missed, especially in our challenging times where international law is under attack at various fronts.
Topic:: Human Rights, International Law, Protection, and Thomas Buergenthal
Political Geography:: South America, Central America, and Americas

252. Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights: Towards an Advanced International Binding Regulation?

Author:: Takis Vidalis
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Institution:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Abstract:: With the rapid development of AI applications in the most important areas of economic, political and social life, the regime for the protection of fundamental rights has been significantly affected. This reality gives rise to initiatives for new legislation at international, supranational and national level. At the level of international law in particular, this legislation currently focuses on the formulation of general principles and guidelines. What is lacking is more specific regulation in situations where the introduction of AI causes uncertainty as to the protection of specific rights, particularly where conflicts arise between them. This article attempts to formulate proposals for such a more specific regulation, based on widely acknowledged principles of international law. Given that technological development and its impact on today’s societies know no national limitations, the adoption of this ‘next step’ in international law may well determine the smooth adaptation of AI to the values of democratic societies.
Topic:: Human Rights, International Law, Regulation, and Artificial Intelligence
Political Geography:: Global Focus

253. The Montreux Convention and its Importance for International Peace and Security

Author:: Ioannis Antonopoulos
Publication Date:: 01-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Institution:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Abstract:: Since its conclusion, the Montreux Convention regarding the regime of the Straits (1936) constitutes an important pillar of the international order. This may be proven by many historical events from the 20th century until today: From the application of the Convention in WWII to its recent invocation in the ongoing Ukrainian conflict. The Convention’s significance derives from its subject-matter, the freedom of transit through the Dardanelles/Turkish Straits in regard to the warships and aircraft in time of peace and in time of war. This is a legal analysis of the Montreux Convention under the scope of International Law providing a brief look at the historical background of events that have led to the signature of the Convention, an extensive presentation of the legal framework of its provisions regarding passage of warships and overflight of aircraft, as well as, some thoughts on its importance for the international peace and security.
Topic:: Security, International Law, History, Peace, International Order, and Montreux Convention
Political Geography:: Europe

254. Ocean Rights – Challenges and Prospects

Author:: Jasper Mührel
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Institution:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Abstract:: The pressing environmental crises of the Anthropocene are inherently connected to ocean health. Yet, the oceans are currently in a critical state. The article explores the idea of giving rights to oceans as one way to enhance their legal protection. It draws on scholarship and practice regarding the existing legal rights of nature, and discusses the challenges and prospects of ocean rights. In doing so, the article raises and addresses three fundamental questions for the recognition of such rights: first, why oceans should hold their own rights in the first place; second, who, i.e. what exact entity or entities, shall hold ocean rights; and finally, how such rights could be implemented and represented and thus be given practical effect.
Topic:: Climate Change, Environment, International Law, Oceans and Seas, Anthropocene, and Rights
Political Geography:: Global Focus

255. Ceuta y Melilla en clave de seguridad nacional

Author:: Luis de la Corte Ibáñez
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal on International Security Studies (RESI)
Institution:: International Security Studies Group (GESI) at the University of Granada
Abstract:: This paper examines the position of Ceuta and Melilla in Spain's national security, considering their strategic importance as Spanish cities located in North Africa and their status as the external border of the European Union. The text begins with a description and assessment of the unique characteristics of Ceuta and Melilla, particularly those of a geographical, institutional and political nature. It then analyses the main threats affecting both cities: irregular immigration, drug trafficking and cross-border organised crime, radicalisation and jihadist terrorism, and hostile political actions. It examines how these threats interact and intensify in the specific context of Ceuta and Melilla. The role of Morocco as a source of risk is also studied. Firstly, as a result of its claim to the two North African cities, which complicates its relations with Spain and calls into question the territorial integrity of the Spanish nation. And secondly, as a result of the Moroccan state's use of its capabilities to create problems in Ceuta and Melilla in order to influence Spanish policy and action. An analysis of the policies implemented by Morocco with negative consequences for the two cities identifies a variety of actions in the ‘grey area’. Based on this diagnosis, the article concludes with a brief reflection and a series of recommendations to contribute to the design of a comprehensive strategy aimed at ensuring the effective defence of Ceuta and Melilla and reducing the structural vulnerabilities of both territories.
Topic:: National Security, Defense Policy, Immigration, Organized Crime, Terrorism, and Gray Zone
Political Geography:: Ceuta, Melilla, Spain, Morocco, and North Africa

256. Introducción al monográfico: Ceuta, Melilla y los desafíos estratégicos para España en su flanco sur

Author:: Luis de la Corte Ibáñez
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal on International Security Studies (RESI)
Institution:: International Security Studies Group (GESI) at the University of Granada
Abstract:: This article introduces a special issue dedicated to analysing the strategic challenges that affect Ceuta and Melilla and, through them, Spain’s national security on its southern flank. Despite the geopolitical significance of both cities, these challenges receive limited attention in public debate and academic research. The contributions to this volume address key issues such as migratory pressure, relations with Morocco and Algeria, grey zone actions, multicultural coexistence, political representation, military foresight, and the legal dimension of potential conflict. In contrast to the silence that often surrounds these matters, the articles presented here offer a rigorous, multidisciplinary and necessary examination.
Topic:: National Security, Defense Policy, International Relations, Immigration, Multiculturalism, and Gray Zone
Political Geography:: Spain, Ceuta, Melilla, North Africa, Morocco, and Algeria

257. Relaciones de España con Marruecos y Argelia y consecuencias para Ceuta y Melilla

Author:: Carlos Echeverría Jesús
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal on International Security Studies (RESI)
Institution:: International Security Studies Group (GESI) at the University of Granada
Abstract:: Morocco claims territories belonging to Spain and Algeria. Ceuta, Melilla, the Vélez de la Gomera and Alhucemas Rocks and the Chafarinas islands, from Spain, and the so-called Eastern Sahara from Algeria. Morocco considers that the Kingdom suffers a “territorial deficit”, and this perception remains today and will remain in the future as an obstacle for the consolidation of stable relations in the region.
Topic:: Regional Politics, Foreign Policy, Territory, and Territorial Disputes
Political Geography:: Morocco, Spain, Europe, and North Africa

258. Las políticas de reconocimiento en lasciudades multiculturales de Ceuta y Melilla

Author:: Carlos Rontomé
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal on International Security Studies (RESI)
Institution:: International Security Studies Group (GESI) at the University of Granada
Abstract:: The cities of Ceuta and Melilla constitute a model of multiculturalism based on minority recognition policies, with special attention to the Islamic minority. The development of these cities as multicultural spaces has been a protracted process that has been consolidated over the last two decades. This process, not without tensions, reveals the difficulties in implementing the recognition policies necessary for the stability of both cities.
Topic:: Multiculturalism, Minorities, Cities, Identity, and Muslims
Political Geography:: Spain, North Africa, Ceuta, and Melilla

259. Representación política e identidad local en Ceuta (1975-2023)

Author:: Fernández. Alicia
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal on International Security Studies (RESI)
Institution:: International Security Studies Group (GESI) at the University of Granada
Abstract:: This article proposes a comparative analysis of the Ceuta political arena, as well as a study of the existing political cleavages, the referents involved in the construction of Ceuta's identity, and their current political practices and preferences.
Topic:: Identity, Representation, Elections, Politics, and Community Cleavages
Political Geography:: Ceuta, Spain, North Africa, and Morocco

260. La Geopolítica de las Regiones Polares: Desafíos y Oportunidades en un Mundo Cambiante

Author:: Samuel Morales
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: Este artículo examina la evolución de la geopolítica en las regiones polares —el Ártico y la Antártida— en el contexto de un mundo marcado por el cambio climático, la competencia por recursos estratégicos, el ascenso de nuevas potencias y la transformación del sistema internacional. A través de un enfoque comparado, se analizan las estructuras de gobernanza, los intereses geoestratégicos, los conflictos emergentes y las oportunidades de cooperación en ambas regiones. En el caso del Ártico, el trabajo identifica una creciente militarización, competencia por hidrocarburos y minerales críticos, así como el interés de actores extrarregionales como China. La gobernanza, basada en el Consejo Ártico y en acuerdos multilaterales como la UNCLOS, muestra limitaciones frente a tensiones interestatales y amenazas ambientales. La Antártida, en contraste, se mantiene bajo un régimen jurídico sólido —el Sistema del Tratado Antártico— que ha logrado preservar la paz y la cooperación científica. Sin embargo, la posible revisión del Protocolo de Madrid en 2048 y la presión por acceder a recursos biológicos y otros activos plantean desafíos futuros. El artículo propone una lectura sistémica e interdisciplinaria de las regiones polares, sugiriendo reformas en los regímenes de gobernanza, mayor inclusión de actores no estatales e instrumentos jurídicos adaptativos.
Topic:: Climate Change, Natural Resources, Governance, and Geopolitics
Political Geography:: Global Focus

261. Regulating Digital Fintech: How States Navigate Power and Geopolitics

Author:: Bipul Biplav Mukherjee
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: This study explores the evolving role of fintech regulation as a strategic tool of geopolitical influence, highlighting how states leverage digital finance, data governance and artificial intelligence to reshape global power structures. It contrasts the regulatory models of the United States, China, and the European Union, each guided by distinct imperatives of innovation, state control, and digital sovereignty. The analysis underscores the growing politicization of fintech and the intensifying race for digital supremacy among major powers. Within this context, the article engages with issues of data decentralization, cross-sectoral data-sharing, and open banking—developments that promote financial inclusion and innovation but also generate complex governance challenges. The study concludes that coordinated transnational regulatory frameworks are essential to safeguarding financial stability and mitigating systemic risks in an increasingly contested and fragmented digital financial ecosystem.
Topic:: International Relations, Governance, European Union, Regulation, Finance, Artificial Intelligence, Banking, and Power Structure
Political Geography:: China, Europe, Asia, and United States of America

262. Cambio Climático y Transición Energética: Una Transformación Geopolítica en Marcha

Author:: Xira Ruiz
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: El artículo analiza la dimensión geopolítica del cambio climático y de la transición energética, en un contexto internacional marcado por la rivalidad entre grandes potencias y la fragmentación del orden global. Se exploran los efectos que estas transformaciones generan en la reconfiguración de las interdependencias materiales, el acceso a recursos críticos y la redefinición de la seguridad energética. El texto se centra especialmente en el papel de Estados Unidos, China y la Unión Europea, así como en las implicaciones para el Sur Global. También analiza el desplazamiento del liderazgo climático desde los marcos multilaterales tradicionales hacia nuevas formas de diplomacia orientadas a la competencia por el liderazgo tecnológico y el control de cadenas de valor. El artículo concluye que la transición energética implica una reorganización estratégica de las relaciones internacionales, que genera nuevas formas de dependencia, redefine las prioridades de seguridad y plantea desafíos para la equidad global y la gobernanza compartida.
Topic:: Climate Change, European Union, Geopolitics, Energy Transition, Energy Security, and Critical Minerals
Political Geography:: China, United States of America, and Global South

263. La Guerra Cognitiva: Opción Estratégica Emergente en la Zona Gris de la Competición Geopolítica

Author:: Soledad Segoviano
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: La guerra cognitiva se define como un conjunto de actividades destinadas a influir, modificar o controlar percepciones, emociones, actitudes, comportamientos y procesos de toma de decisiones con el objetivo de alterar las capacidades cognitivas de individuos y grupos para alcanzar una posición de ventaja estratégica sobre los adversarios sin necesidad de recurrir al uso directo de la fuerza. La guerra cognitiva, un concepto emergente donde se desdibujan los límites entre la guerra y la paz, se fundamenta en el uso de las ciencias neurocognitivas y otros avances científicos y tecnológicos, como la nanotecnología, la biotecnología o la robótica, para manipular y perturbar la cognición humana, un componente fundamental en el actual entorno de seguridad internacional. Este artículo presenta la guerra cognitiva como una opción estratégica al servicio de los intereses de poder y seguridad de diferentes competidores globales en un escenario internacional definido por la transformación y la creciente rivalidad geopolítica.
Topic:: Science and Technology, Geopolitics, Strategic Competition, Hybrid Warfare, Cognitive Warfare, and Neuroscience
Political Geography:: Global Focus

264. Military Humanitarianism: A case of India´s Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief Operations

Author:: Aashriti Gautam
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: The current global scenario, wherein states are increasingly inclined to deploy military force to defend their national interests at the cost of human lives, often overlooks the military's constructive role in safeguarding and reinstating fundamental democratic values, such as respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, through its Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief operations (HADR). Within this contextual framework, the article adds an important dimension to the existing scholarship on the relationship between democratic values and the military, examined through the lens of military humanitarianism. To further substantiate this assertion, the author posits that the global humanitarian aid and disaster relief operations undertaken by the Indian Armed Forces serve as a compelling case study. The analytical findings reveal that India’s HADR efforts reflect its commitment to democratic values, emphasizing transparency, inclusivity, and equitable aid distribution, while strengthening governance, resilience, and strategic influence in global crisis management.
Topic:: Disaster Relief, Armed Forces, Democracy, Military, and Humanitarian Assistance
Political Geography:: South Asia and India

265. La Ciberguerra y su impacto en el Orden Mundial

Author:: Enrique Cubeiro
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: El ciberespacio es un ámbito artificial y en continua expansión de tal forma que el abanico de objetivos potenciales que pueden ser afectados por medio de alguna de las múltiples técnicas de ciberataque es muy amplio. El artículo explica las peculiaridades del ciberespacio, su transversalidad, la opacidad, la asimetría y el impacto del ciberespacio en las potencialidades del débil con respecto al fuerte, así como en la diversidad de las amenazas que genera, la inefectividad de la disuasión, la disociación ofensivo-defensiva, el amplio abanico de posibles daños y su efectividad en creciente progresión. El artículo explica también la dificultad de aplicación en este campo del derecho internacional humanitario donde, además, los Estados juegan con reglas diferentes, y cómo muy pocos Estados cuentan con un poder ciberespacial completo, contribuyendo, con ello, a establecer una jerarquía entre Estados en términos de seguridad.
Topic:: Security, Defense Policy, Human Rights, Cybersecurity, and Cyberspace
Political Geography:: Global Focus

266. La Geopolítica del Espacio Marítimo y Terrestre. “Mediterráneos” y Proyecciones

Author:: Antonio Marquina and Federico Aznar
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: La historia de la humanidad puede plantearse como una sucesión de colisiones entre lo terrestre y lo marítimo, entre lo telúrico y lo talasocrático. La dialéctica entre ambos términos ha cuajado a nivel local en lo mediterráneo, en espacios en los que un mar rodeado por la costa terrestre ocupa una posición de centralidad. De hecho, la Historia ha ido consagrando sucesivamente a estos distintos espacios geográficos como centros de gravedad del mundo por la acumulación de poder que el mar traslada a sus costas. Además, y ya en la actualidad, lo mediterráneo se integra en el proceso de refragmentación de la globalización y también se produce una interconexión entre algunos espacios definidos como “mediterráneos” con importantes consecuencias geopolíticas.
Topic:: History, Geopolitics, and Maritime
Political Geography:: Caribbean, Asia-Pacific, Arctic, and Mediterranean

267. Geopolítica del Espacio Exterior

Author:: Josep Baqués
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: En el campo militar hemos pasado a considerar el espacio como un dominio más, a añadir a los tradicionales (tierra, mar y aire, y, si acaso, el ciberespacio). Esto da cuenta de una novedad, que nos obliga a analizar en qué punto nos encontramos, tanto a nivel tecnológico, como en su impacto en la competición entre grandes potencias, que ha regresado al primer plano, pese a las buenas intenciones del derecho internacional. Este artículo muestra que, lejos de esas buenas intenciones, y de la letra de algunos tratados que, como el OST, aspiraban al establecimiento de un régimen cooperativo, estamos inmersos en una lógica de corte realista, que, en buena medida, traslada al espacio las tensiones existentes en los demás dominios.
Topic:: Geopolitics, Space, and Satellites
Political Geography:: Global Focus

268. From TikTok to Terrorism? The Online Radicalization of European Lone Attackers since October 7, 2023

Author:: Nicolas Stockhammer
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The October 7, 2023, Hamas attack on Israel marked a pivotal moment not only in Middle East security policy but also in the global Islamist and particularly jihadi propaganda landscape. This article examines how the ensuing digital “victimhood-revenge” narrative rapidly spread across platforms like TikTok, fueling a new wave of radicalization among adolescents in Europe. Drawing on six European case studies from 2023 to 2025—including foiled and executed attacks in Vienna, Solingen, and Zurich—this article identifies a recurring radicalization pattern involving emotionally vulnerable, digitally native individuals exposed to algorithm-driven Islamist content in social media, but predominantly on TikTok. The analysis conceptualizes this process through the lens of a “Virtual Caliphate Complex” and explores TikTok’s role as a low-threshold gateway into extremist ecosystems. By analyzing cross-platform mobilization dynamics, aesthetic framing, and the hybridization of lone-actor terrorism with online support networks, the article underscores the urgency of adapting P/CVE strategies to algorithmic environments. The conclusion suggests possible policy emphasis on content moderation, digital literacy, and platform accountability—particularly in the context of the European Union’s Digital Services Act legislation. The article contends that today’s prevailing Islamist radicalization pattern reflects not only ideological motivations but also youth-online-culture dynamics and algorithmic influence.
Topic:: Radicalization, Innovation, Recruitment, TikTok, October 7, and Lone Wolf Attacks
Political Geography:: Europe

269. Regional Terrorism Trends Before and After October 7

Author:: Suat Cubukcu, Eoin B. Healy, and Adam Blackwell
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The October 7, 2023, Hamas attack on Israel triggered a rapid escalation in regional conflict and reshaped the operational landscape of Iran-backed violent non-state actors. Using data from the Global Terrorism Trends and Analysis Center’s GRID database, this article compares patterns of terrorist violence in the Middle East one year before and after the attack. The analyses reveal a dramatic rise in drone, rocket, and missile attacks—particularly by Hezbollah, the Houthis, and the Islamic Resistance in Iraq—against U.S., Israeli, and maritime targets. Despite the volume, these attacks caused limited casualties due to advanced U.S. and Israeli defenses, signaling a broader shift toward low-cost, high-frequency stand-off warfare, causing disruption over decisive outcomes. While Hezbollah and Hamas suffered major losses at the hands of Israeli forces, the Houthis emerged as Iran’s most active and disruptive proxy. The analysis underscores a post-October 7 reconfiguration of the proxy landscape and highlights the strategic limits of Iran’s indirect warfare and its eroded ability to deter direct Israeli attacks on Iran.
Topic:: Terrorism, Hezbollah, Houthis, Hamas, Proxy Groups, Regional Security, October 7, and Non State Actors
Political Geography:: Iran, Middle East, Israel, and Palestine

270. Generation Jihad: The Profile and Modus Operandi of Minors Involved in Recent Islamist Terror Plots in Europe

Author:: Erik Hacker
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: Europe has largely avoided major jihadi attacks in recent years, though experts and officials from the United Nations as well as the Five Eyes intelligence alliance have repeatedly warned of the heightened terror threat increasingly linked to a new generation of teenagers, who radicalize primarily online. Yet, little is known about the specific profiles and modi operandi of these underage suspects. As this trend shows no signs of waning, a clearer understanding of these minors’ specific characteristics is vital in order to adapt counterterrorism responses and sustain the current high rate of foiled plots. This article offers an in-depth account of the background and attack planning behaviors of 44 minors who planned to carry out jihadi terror attacks in Europe since 2022 but were arrested before they could act. By comparing their characteristics to adult terror suspects, it highlights the distinctive traits of this new generation of Islamist extremists and explores the strategic implications for counterterrorism efforts moving forward.
Topic:: Security, Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, Islamism, and Youth
Political Geography:: Europe

271. Feature Commentary: An Assessment of Operation Rough Rider

Author:: Gregory Johnsen
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: On March 15, 2025, the United States launched an offensive against the Houthis in Yemen with the stated goal of restoring “freedom of navigation” in the Red Sea and ending Houthi attacks on commercial shipping. Fifty-two days later, on May 5, the United States ended its operations in Yemen following an agreement with the Houthis that the group would no longer target U.S. military vessels or U.S. flagged ships. This article provides an assessment of that campaign, known as Operation Rough Rider, looking at what the United States hit, who was killed, and what it cost as well as how the Houthis have rebounded and regrouped, the current situation on the ground in Yemen, and what is likely to come next.
Topic:: Counter-terrorism, Houthis, Shipping, Military Operations, and Operation Rough Rider
Political Geography:: Middle East, Yemen, and United States of America

272. The Escalation of U.S. Airstrikes in Somalia and the Role of Perceived Threats to the U.S. Homeland

Author:: David Sterman
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: In 2025, the United States substantially increased the pace of its airstrikes in Somalia. At the same time, it increasingly cited not just regional security rationales for the increased pace of strikes but also rationales rooted in an assessed potential threat to the U.S. homeland from Somalia—in particular from the Islamic State-Somalia’s recruitment of foreign fighters. This article examines the increased pace of strikes, the rationales that have been cited to explain the increase, and what existing evidence reveals about the potential threat to the U.S. homeland. It also underscores the need for greater clarity from the U.S. government regarding its assessment of the extent of such a threat.
Topic:: Counter-terrorism, Islamic State, Al Shabaab, Airstrikes, and Military Operations
Political Geography:: Africa, Somalia, and United States of America

273. A View from the CT Foxhole: Richard Feakes, Former Australian Ambassador for Counter-Terrorism

Author:: Don Rassler and Sean Morrow
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: Richard Feakes served as Australia’s Ambassador for Counter-Terrorism from May 2023 to November 2024. Prior to that, he was the Commonwealth Deputy Counter Terrorism Coordinator, Australia’s Ambassador to Afghanistan, and Deputy Head of Mission in Iraq. He has served in a number of strategic and national security positions across the Australian government, including as Assistant Secretary for Afghanistan and Pakistan and as a Senior Adviser within the Prime Minister’s Department.
Topic:: Security, Counter-terrorism, Partnerships, Interview, and Threat Assessment
Political Geography:: Australia and Indo-Pacific

274. A View from the CT Foxhole: Adam Hadley, Executive Director, Tech Against Terrorism

Author:: Don Rassler
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: Adam Hadley CBE is the Founder and Executive Director of Tech Against Terrorism, a public-private partnership dedicated to disrupting terrorists online. Tech Against Terrorism was established as an initiative of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED). Hadley is also the CEO of QuantSpark, an AI innovation consultancy.
Topic:: Science and Technology, Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, and Interview
Political Geography:: Global Focus

275. Understanding China’s New Counterterrorism Ambitions in Africa

Author:: Jason Warner
Publication Date:: 08-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: China has recently been pursuing a much more aggressive stance in African security affairs, including playing a more engaged role in counterterrorism (CT). Where is China engaged in CT in Africa, and by what means? What challenges would China face in engaging more robustly in African CT? Most importantly, why is China newly expressing interest in engaging in the African CT landscape at this particular moment? In the main, this piece argues that despite ostensible rationales related to self-defense of economic interests and solidarity with African states, at its core, Beijing’s primary motivations for entering the African CT space are to diversify its means of influence in Africa beyond its historical “economics-first” approach. Recognizing that engaging in African CT is a high-risk but potentially high-reward activity (which other global powers have recently engaged in with mixed results), Beijing likely believes it has a new genre of CT assistance—less kinetic, more economic, and rooted in equitable partnerships—that represents a fundamentally new and productive means of gaining influence in Africa. Yet, China faces challenges in its African CT pursuits, including reconciling whether its cautious ethos can stomach the turbulent landscape of African terrorism; how to deal with a saturated African CT space; and how not to fall victim to the same pitfalls as other global powers that have recently engaged in African CT. Nevertheless, if China can prove that its cautious non-military-first approach is fundamentally different from existing CT value propositions from external states, Beijing could deeply rival, and potentially replace, Washington as the partner of choice for security cooperation in Africa.
Topic:: Security, Foreign Policy, Counter-terrorism, Strategic Competition, Foreign Influence, and Security Cooperation
Political Geography:: Africa, China, and Asia

276. Feature Commentary: Confronting Cartels: Military Considerations South of the Border

Author:: Brian Michael Jenkins
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: Possible U.S. military action against Mexico’s drug cartels poses unique challenges. The situation is complicated, and the United States must be prepared for possible counteractions. The cartels are not a single actor. If attacked, they may avoid direct confrontation, accepting temporary losses, anticipating that the United States will not sustain a long campaign. Or Mexico’s cartels may respond violently, exploiting U.S. vulnerabilities in Mexico—and possibly north of the border. The government of Mexico is a separate actor. It can assist or undermine U.S. efforts. Past government campaigns against the cartels led to soaring rates of criminal violence. Chaos in Mexico could have serious implications for U.S. homeland security. The United States needs a ‘Red Team’ to examine a range of scenarios. The article proceeds in six parts: Part I contrasts recent U.S. military actions in Yemen and Iran with possible military action in Mexico. Part II examines perceptions of the threat. Part III examines how the history of U.S.-Mexico relations will shape the battlefield. Part IV reviews our own experience in combating foreign drug traffickers, offering some preliminary takeaways. Part V examines possible options. Part VI looks at how the cartels might react, how the United States might be forced to respond—and how other adversaries of the United States might attempt to exploit the situation.
Topic:: Counter-terrorism, Borders, Organized Crime, Cartels, and Military Operations
Political Geography:: Latin America, North America, Mexico, and United States of America

277. Uzbek Foreign Fighter Groups in the Syrian Jihad: The Evolution of KIB and KTJ from 2011 through 2025

Author:: Kathleen Collins
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The fall of Bashar al-Assad’s regime to the forces of Hayat Tahir al-Sham (HTS) revealed the ongoing significance of multiple foreign fighter groups in Syria. These militias were instrumental in supporting HTS during its campaign for Damascus last fall. Two primarily ethnic Uzbek fighter groups that originated in Central Asia were prominent among them: the Imam Bukhari Battalion (Katibat Imam al-Bukhari, KIB) and the Tavhid and Jihad Battalion (Katibat Tavhid va Jihod, KTJ). Each had pledged allegiance to al-Qa`ida and fought alongside al-Qa`ida’s Syrian branch Jabhat al-Nusra. Each remained closely connected to al-Qa`ida even after al-Nusra rebranded as HTS. This article traces the origins and development of these Uzbek-led militias and argues that they constitute a resilient force of battle-hardened fighters, demonstrating remarkable staying power in Syria. Furthermore, this article demonstrates that KIB and KTJ still embrace a salafi-jihadi ideology and goals. It also emphasizes KIB’s and KTJ’s ongoing ties to al-Qa`ida and the Taliban and recommends that policymakers and counterterrorism experts consider the implications of their continued presence in Syria under the new regime, as well as the potential consequences if they leave Syria.
Topic:: Counter-terrorism, Syrian War, Jihad, Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), and Foreign Fighters
Political Geography:: Middle East and Syria

278. Commentary: The Dangers of Overreliance on Generative AI in the CT Fight

Author:: Nicholas Clark
Publication Date:: 08-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The explosive rise in generative artificial intelligence (AI) use has sparked debate over its applicability in military domains such as counterterrorism (CT). This article critically evaluates the role of large language models (LLMs) in CT, arguing that their utility remains limited and potentially detrimental when applied indiscriminately. After providing a high-level overview of the mathematical foundations of LLMs, the article demonstrates how these tools can produce misleading or confidently incorrect outputs. Through case studies and empirical findings, this article underscores the cognitive risks of overreliance on AI in CT planning and intelligence operations, including reduced analytical engagement and inhibited creativity among operators. While generative AI may assist in automating routine tasks, it lacks the capacity for nuanced judgment, uncertainty quantification, and dynamic responsiveness critical to effective CT work. The article concludes by advocating for a shift in focus toward enhancing education in probabilistic reasoning, such as Bayesian inference, and building robust data governance infrastructures. Such foundational improvements are prerequisites for any effective or responsible integration of AI into CT domains.
Topic:: Counter-terrorism, Artificial Intelligence, and Large Language Models (LLMs)
Political Geography:: Global Focus

279. Moving Targets: Implications of the Russo-Ukrainian War for Drone Terrorism

Author:: David Hambling
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: Small and commercially available drones in the hands of violent extremists pose a rapidly growing terrorist threat. This article examines that threat in the light of the invasion of Ukraine. Consumer drones such as DJI Mavics, FPV racing drones, and Shahed-style one-way attack drones have become potent weapons. Their affordability, accessibility, and adaptability enable precision strikes, bypass traditional defenses, and democratize air power for state and non-state actors alike. This article details how these drones have been used in Ukraine—from grenade-dropping quadcopters to long-range strategic attacks—and highlights their potential adoption by violent extremist organizations (VEOs). The second part of the article assesses the implications for global counterterrorism, emphasizing the psychological impact, scalability, and low operational risk of drone attacks. It concludes by outlining countermeasures, including electronic jamming, physical barriers, kinetic interception, and the growing role of drone-on-drone defense, urging a comprehensive and adaptive response to this multifaceted and accelerating threat.
Topic:: Science and Technology, Counter-terrorism, Drones, Innovation, Armed Conflict, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, Eurasia, and Ukraine

280. Tehran’s Homeland Option: Terror Pathways for Iran to Strike in the United States

Author:: Matthew Levitt
Publication Date:: 08-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The 12-day Iran war may be over, but the threat of Iranian reprisal attacks now looms large, and will for the foreseeable future. European authorities exposed plots in Sweden and Germany even as the war was being waged, and Israeli authorities issued a warning over potential attacks in the United Arab Emirates a couple of weeks later, specifically citing heightened concerns in the wake of the war with Iran. Iranian operatives or their agents could also attempt to carry out attacks inside the United States, leveraging what U.S. counterterrorism officials have describe as a “homeland option” developed over years. Given the U.S. role in bombing the Fordow nuclear complex, it should not be a surprise that U.S. authorities quickly issued a terrorism advisory warning of potential Iranian plots in the homeland. Drawing on past cases of Iranian plots in the United States and elsewhere, this article explores the primary pathways available to Iran conduct or enable a terrorism act in the United States. These include deploying Iranian agents, criminal surrogates, terrorist proxies, or actively seeking to inspire lone offenders to carry out attacks within the homeland.
Topic:: Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, Armed Conflict, and Regional Security
Political Geography:: Iran, Middle East, Israel, Palestine, North America, and United States of America

281. Militant Violence in Jammu and Kashmir Post-Abrogation of Article 370

Author:: Animesh Roul
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: This article presents a chronological and thematic analysis of militant violence in Jammu and Kashmir from the abrogation of Article 370 of the Indian Constitution in August 2019 to July 2025. It traces three distinct phases: an initial decline in attacks due to lockdowns and security restrictions (2019-2020); a resurgence marked by hybrid militancy, targeted killings, and intimidation of civilians (2021-2023); and a lethal escalation involving high-profile and audacious assaults, intensified counterterrorism operations, and cross-border tensions (2024-2025). The April 2025 Pahalgam massacre—which killed 26 people, mostly Hindus—marked a turning point, prompting India’s limited military offensive Operation Sindoor against militant bases in Pakistan-administered Kashmir, followed by Operation Mahadev to track and eliminate the militants involved in the violence. The article examines these developments to assess the evolving threat, highlighting how militancy has shifted toward hybrid façade units backed by Pakistan-based legacy terror groups.
Topic:: Security, Terrorism, Territorial Disputes, Violence, and Armed Conflict
Political Geography:: Pakistan, India, and Jammu and Kashmir

282. A View from the CT Foxhole: James Stack, Director, Great Plains Diagnostic Network

Author:: Don Rassler and Kristina Hummel
Publication Date:: 08-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: James Stack, Ph.D., is an internationally recognized leader in the field of plant biosecurity. A professor in the Department of Plant Pathology at Kansas State University since 2003, Dr. Stack provided leadership in the development of the National Plant Diagnostic Network (NPDN) and became regional director of the Great Plains Diagnostic Network (GPDN), one of the five regional networks, soon after it was formed. From 2006 to 2008, he served as the director of KSU’s Biosecurity Research Institute, a biocontainment facility for plant, animal, and human health. Dr. Stack’s research focuses on genome-informed diagnostics for plant-pathogenic bacteria to the subspecific and population levels of discrimination, as well as research on the epidemiology and ecology of toxigenic fungi and bacteria. He speaks regularly on plant biosecurity topics, to include at the U.S. Naval War College and the National Academy of Sciences, among other forums.
Topic:: National Security, Science and Technology, Terrorism, Biosecurity, and Interview
Political Geography:: Global Focus

283. The Changing Character of Terrorism and U.S. Counterterrorism

Author:: Don Rassler, Kristina Hummel, Brian Dodwell, and Ned Curry
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The competition between terror movements and counterterrorism forces is an interactive and iterative game, as the actions taken by one side are designed to defeat, circumvent, or shape the activity taken by the opposing players. To better understand these interactive dynamics, it is important to evaluate how terrorism and counterterrorism have been evolving. This article first takes high-level stock of how the spread, structure, scale, and speed of terrorism have been changing in recent years and highlights key challenges and implications for counterterrorism. It then evaluates the United States’ ongoing effort to find a sustainable counterterrorism path, a journey that has been filled with challenges, benefits, dilemmas, and opportunities, and discusses how key factors have been shaping the direction, reach, and pace of change. An important takeaway from these reviews is that while the threat of international terrorism is not what it used to be, there is a lot of change occurring across the terrorism landscape. U.S. counterterrorism has also been undergoing some important shifts, and there are open questions about whether U.S. CT forces and assets will be spread further. If not managed carefully, change taking place across these two ‘systems’ could interact in ways that may disrupt CT progress.
Topic:: National Security, Terrorism, and Counter-terrorism
Political Geography:: North America and United States of America

284. The Best of Times, the Worst of Times: The Repressed Islamic State Affiliates

Author:: Daniel Milton
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: It has been more than 10 years since Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi ascended the pulpit in the al-Nuri mosque to announce that the group known as the Islamic State had, at least in its own eyes, fulfilled the requirement to become a caliphate. In doing so, he opened an era of expansion for the Islamic State in which it welcomed numerous affiliates into its fold from all over the world. While some of those affiliates remain to this day, others appear to have faded away, at least when it comes to carrying out operations. This article explores these “repressed” affiliates in an effort to provide a brief overview of potential reasons behind their decline. The stories of each of these affiliates contain both similarities and differences. The repression of Islamic State affiliates seems to be the result of a combination of factors, ranging from military power of external actors to in-group conflict to an inability to gain a foothold among a target population. The importance of nuanced counterterrorism efforts, as opposed to a one-size-fits-all approach, is the main takeaway of this analysis.
Topic:: Violent Extremism, Counter-terrorism, and Islamic State
Political Geography:: Iraq, Middle East, and Syria

285. Foreign Terrorist Fighters: A Threat in Stasis

Author:: Kim Cragin
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: This article examines the historical trajectory of “foreign terrorist fighters” associated with the Islamic State and its antecedents, al-Qa`ida and the Arab Afghans. The article argues that the threat of foreign fighters today is best understood as being in stasis. Foreign fighters continue to pursue external operations against the West. They also transfer new tactics, techniques, and procedures between conflict zones. These patterns are not new. Beyond these historical patterns, foreign terrorist fighters have become increasingly adept at reaching out to new sympathizers and serving as interlocutors between Islamic State affiliates in conflict zones and their sympathizers. FTFs also have utilized end-to-end encryption technologies, generative artificial intelligence, and cryptocurrencies to magnify their impact. Nevertheless, it is not yet time for alarm. Countries have strengthened their laws, intelligence-sharing, and law enforcement coordination over the past decade. If governments continue to build on this collective effort and devote resources toward mitigating foreign fighter flows, the threat should remain in stasis.
Topic:: Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, Al Qaeda, Islamic State, and Foreign Fighters
Political Geography:: Global Focus

286. Are International Institutions/Organizations Useful for Maintaining Peace and Harmony? An Analysis in Combination with a Case Study on the Conflict in Ukraine

Author:: Fabian Boettcher
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: February 24, 2022: Russian forces start the full-scale invasion of Ukraine under the orders of Russian President Putin. Since then, our world has been in turmoil; what seemed certain for years is not certain. After the end of the Second World War, the World Powers established international organizations to prevent that amount of suffering from happening again. Are international organizations useful for maintaining peace? This research essay is going to address the question based on available literature and internet news sources to draw some tangible conclusions and perhaps even to suggest some improvements on how international organizations will be able to stay relevant for global peace in the future. The War in Ukraine will serve as a case study in the essay’s second half. The reader will learn that international organizations have performed well in their functions, that Western nations did things wrong in handling the Ukrainian crisis, and that organizations like NATO got a new drive and purpose courtesy of the Russian aggression. Most importantly, the reader will learn that argumentations on the demise of the liberal world order are premature at best.
Topic:: International Relations, NATO, International Organization, United Nations, European Union, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, and Ukraine

287. From Wałęsa to Rivlin: An Overview of Challenges and Controversies in Polish-Israeli Relations in the Post-Cold War Period Within a Bi – and Multilateral Dimension

Author:: Justyna Łapaj-Kucharska
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The centuries-long coexistence of the Polish and Jewish nations gives Polish-Israeli relations specificity and unique character. One can state that there is an emotional bond between these nations, which shaped interstate relations in the post-Cold War period, simultaneously facilitating and hindering their progress. The article reviews the most critical challenges and controversies surrounding building state relations between Poland and Israel after the Cold War. It also analyzed how selected historical events related to the coexistence of the Polish and Jewish nations influenced later Polish-Israeli relations. The work summary included recommendations for further actions to develop interstate relations further. The present research uses investigative methods and techniques in the field of social sciences, such as documentary analysis and review of official statements from politicians, analysis of primary literary sources, the decisional method, secondary analysis of quantitative research, and deduction. Due to the formal constraints of this article, the author has selected the issues that have emerged in Polish-Israeli dialogue within a state context, emphasizing political relations.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Bilateral Relations, and Post-Cold War
Political Geography:: Europe, Middle East, Israel, Poland, and Palestine

288. The International Community in the Face of Intensified Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon During the Presidency of Jair Bolsonaro

Author:: Anna Sakson-Boulet
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Since the 1950s, when the deliberate settlement of the Amazon began, with a rapid influx of people, the Brazilian Amazon has faced various threats because of the demands associated with unsustainable economic development. During the presidency of Jair Bolsonaro, environmental policies were marginalized, including through the legislative and regulatory dismantling of forest protection and the financial sapping of environmental institutions, which favored uncontrolled logging of equatorial forests. Therefore, deforestation increased yearly during the Bolsonaro administration, accompanied by increased greenhouse gas emissions. That is why the article aims to answer the question of what role the international community can play in protecting the Amazon rainforest, given its essential role in regulating the climate regionally and globally. The research methods include formal institutional analysis of relevant legal documents and decision analysis. The research and analysis of states’ individual and collective actions lead to the conclusion that economic pressure has been applied to influence the Bolsonaro administration.
Topic:: Climate Change, International Community, Jair Bolsonaro, and Deforestation
Political Geography:: Brazil, South America, and Amazon Basin

289. The Biden Administration’s New Industrial Policy: Domestic and International Implications

Author:: Barbara Regulska-Ingielewicz
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The article aims to analyze new industrial policy based on the example of actions taken by the Joe Biden administration. Their essence is transforming the economy in line with climate goals while stimulating development. The paper will present the main assumptions of the United States’ green industrial policy, its goals, and international implications, which indicate that it is characterized by economic nationalism. The article attempts to answer three main research questions: What is the essence of the new industrial policy? What are the goals of the new industrial policy initiated by the Joe Biden administration? What are the expected international implications of this policy? Answers to the above questions will enable verification of the hypothesis, which states that the Joe Biden administration has initiated a new industrial policy in the spirit of state interventionism based on new environmental protection assumptions. Its goal is to give the U.S. economy new pro-development impulses and increase its competitiveness. The first part of the paper will present assumptions of the new industrial policy, then the goals and measures of the new United States industrial policy, and the third part will show the international implications of the above policy.
Topic:: Climate Change, Industrial Policy, Economic Growth, Joe Biden, Green Transition, Green Economy, and Economic Nationalism
Political Geography:: North America and United States of America

290. Ten Years of China’s Belt and Road Initiative in Central Asia: The Critical Assessment and Future Directions

Author:: Elżbieta Proń
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This paper looks at how China’s use of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in its policy towards Central Asia (CA) has changed since 2013 and what this change signalizes regarding China’s use of the BRI at international forums. To answer these research questions, the paper focuses on Central Asia – once dubbed “the first strand of the BRI” (R. Pantucci); the region where China has “tested” many institutions of its international engagement; and where the BRI was introduced in 2013. To answer the research questions, this study draws from analyzing literature and sources in Russian, Chinese, English, and Polish. This study is primarily empirically oriented. This study finds that at its 10, the BRI will focus on connectivity, clean energy, and new technologies. It also finds that despite the high profile of the Green BRI and many relevant agreements, only a fraction of projects are branded “Green BRI.” It thus argues that the BRI has served as a legitimizing “umbrella” label for various Chinese policy initiatives, which are realized via other cooperation formats.
Topic:: Economics, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), Renewable Energy, and Silk Road
Political Geography:: China and Central Asia

291. Indonesia in the Face of the Death Penalty – Hopes Versus Reality

Author:: Maria Ochwat
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The right to life, without a doubt, is the most essential right of every human being. Protection and respect for this right is a prerequisite for enjoying and realizing other rights guaranteed to the individual. However, it is not an absolute right, but one that, under various circumstances, can be restricted. One such restriction is the death penalty. Many countries have decided to abolish it; however, only three countries in Southeast Asia, namely Cambodia, the Philippines, and East Timor, have decided. While Indonesia guarantees the right to life, it does allow the death penalty. Although the death penalty has not been carried out for several years, the death penalty has been retained in the criminal code, and courts continue to award it. The public (especially the young) is increasingly advocating its complete abolition, but those in power do not seem interested. The death penalty is also left in the new criminal code. This article is about the death penalty in Indonesia. The author also decided to survey Indonesian students to find out their attitudes toward the death penalty.
Topic:: Public Opinion, Prisons/Penal Systems, Death Penalty, and Right to Life
Political Geography:: Indonesia and Southeast Asia

292. Realism in International Trade Relations: Limiting Judicial Activism

Author:: Dmytro Skrynka
Publication Date:: 03-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: he WTO dispute settlement system crisis is an important milestone in the history of international law. Since the realist school in the study of international relations is known for its attention to the limits of the functions of international law, it is quite appropriate to review the key concepts of the realist school relevant to the current crisis. The ambitious endeavor to minimize the use of political methods of dispute settlement in international trade disputes within the institutional system of the WTO has not been quite successful. As postulated by realists, the political processes prevailed over the international legal procedures. In this article, based on the realist approach, the causes of the stalemate of the WTO dispute settlement system are analyzed, and recommendations are presented for remedying the current situation. The comparative analysis method is used for this. The article translates the relevant concepts of international relations by key realists, including the classification of international disputes by Hans Morgenthau, into specific recommendations for resolving the ongoing crisis.
Topic:: International Relations, International Trade and Finance, Realism, Dispute Resolution, and Judicial Activism
Political Geography:: Global Focus

293. The Bay of Bengal Countries’ Domestic and Regional Sources of Maritime Governance Concepts in the 21st Century

Author:: Tomasz Łukaszuk
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The primary aim of the article is to analyse domestic and regional sources of maritime governance in the Bay of Bengal in the 21st century from a constructivist viewpoint. It offers a comparative examination of domestic and external factors shaping maritime governance in the region, illustrating how Kantian-style anarchy prevails over Hobbesian and Lockean models. The article explores the roots of the maritime culture of sharing, cooperation, and trade in the Bay of Bengal, which stems from Hindu, Buddhist, and Muslim traditions and aligns with the Kantian model. The recognition of the agency of seas and oceans by Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand is analysed within the context of natural disasters and their role in safeguarding the security of the Sea Lanes of Communication. They regard the sea as an integral and objective part of their lives, intertwined with the fabric of maritime societies. Despite the political diversity in the region, domestic and regional factors play a crucial and positive role in shaping maritime policies, fostering confidence in the importance of developing international cooperation in the maritime sector. The article is divided into four sections. The first – introduction – outlines the main ideas, research questions, hypotheses, and the structure of the article. The following section explains the conceptual framework, presenting the constructivist perspective on anarchy in international relations and its relevance to the maritime domain. The third section provides a detailed analysis of regional and domestic influences on the maritime domain and maritime governance concepts in the Bay of Bengal, offering a thorough understanding of the topic. Finally, the article concludes by summarizing all assumptions and addressing the research questions.
Topic:: Security, Governance, Maritime, and Blue Economy
Political Geography:: Bay of Bengal

294. Nile’s Flow of Tensions: The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam and Its Impact on Ethiopian-Sudanese Relations

Author:: Hanna Rubinkowska-Anioł and Nagmeldin Karamalla-Gaiballa
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Over the last decade, the Ethiopian project of constructing a dam on the Blue Nile (Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, GERD) close to its border with Sudan resulted in creating serious political tensions between Egypt and Ethiopia, with Sudan being involved. Egypt is accusing Ethiopia of attempts to control the water of the Nile, while Ethiopia claims that the power produced by the dam will contribute to the well-being of Ethiopia and its neighbors, most importantly, Sudan. Among many aspects and layers from which the problem of the Nile’s waters and the construction of GERD can be analyzed, there are disputed areas on the Sudanese-Ethiopian border. They are claimed by Sudan on the grounds of breaking the rule of the 1902 treaty, giving the lands to Ethiopia under the condition of not interfering in the flow of the river. This article examines the GERD project and explores in depth the historical, political, and economic significance of the Ethiopian-Sudanese border, with a particular focus on its implications for relations between the two neighboring countries. The article also discusses key issues related to water resource management, historical land disputes, and the geopolitical dynamics of the region, providing a comprehensive historical and contemporary context.
Topic:: Treaties and Agreements, Bilateral Relations, Water, and Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD)
Political Geography:: Africa, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Nile River

295. Anti-Terrorism Prevention in the Police: Theory and Practice

Author:: Marek Cupryjak, Marek Stefański, and Radosław Zych
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The purpose of this study was to analyse police services in terms of their preparedness to counter terrorist threats. The authors considered that one of the main areas of the research subject in the paper is the relationship between public needs and expectations and the functioning of the police and other entities of the anti-terrorist system in terms of the sense of public security. An essential part of the paper is the presented and discussed results of scientific research on preparing police services to counter terrorist threats. The conducted research clearly indicates that conducting anti-terrorism prevention training is necessary, first and foremost, in the basic professional courses of police officers, as well as in in-service training. It is better to prevent than to be surprised by a terrorist attack, which brings death, destruction, trauma, and tragedy for all those affected. Therefore, every police officer should have a basic knowledge of anti-terrorism prevention issues. The authors include the most important proposals for improving the anti-terrorist system of the Republic of Poland in the conclusions. The most important ones included: efforts should be made to continuously improve the level of training of Polish police officers and officers of counterterrorist formations. These trainings should be organized with the use of instructors and specialists from the world’s leading counter-terrorist units.
Topic:: Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, Homeland Security, Crisis Management, and Police
Political Geography:: Global Focus

296. The Power of Russian Propaganda: Identity-Related and Authoritarian-System Correlated Factors

Author:: Olga Nadskakuła-Kaczmarczyk
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: This article examines identity-related and authoritarian-system correlated factors, as well as how they influence the positive reception of government propaganda in Russia. Identity-related factors include references to specific historical contexts in the state propaganda narrative and a strengthening of specific values and social beliefs, mainly anti-Western ones, in order to achieve the desired social attitude towards the events under discussion. Authoritarian-system correlated factors include both tight regime control over the entire media landscape and issues related to political apathy, attitudes of conformism and manifestations of cynicism as essential elements of political culture in Russia. The methods of communication between the government and society learnt in the authoritarian system also create fertile ground for the impact of the state narrative: it is a specific combination of identity-related factors exploited by Kremlin propaganda (identity framing), as well as those connected to authoritarian settings, such as political apathy and its resulting consequences, that influence Russians’ susceptibility to state propaganda. These two elements, which work together, mean that Russian propaganda does not have to be persuasive to be effective – it should only strengthen and confirm the already encoded beliefs of the majority of citizens.
Topic:: Authoritarianism, Propaganda, Identity, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: Russia, Eurasia, and Ukraine

297. Europeanisation of the European Union’s Cultural, Political and Social Dimensions as a Tool for Strengthening European Identity

Author:: Jadwiga Nadolska
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: Using the constructivist paradigm, in the article, the author diagnoses the potential of top-down, bottom-up, cross-loading and ad personam Europeanisation in strengthening the cultural, civic and functional dimensions of European identity. First, the trajectories of how national and European identity form are explained and compared, and the factors determining the development of three dimensions of European identity are examined. The study shows that if Europeanising processes are to be effective in strengthening European identity, they should be developed in a complementary way, in three areas: 1) European culture and education, 2) the pan-European political arena, and 3) reinforcement of the utilitarian legitimacy of the European integration project (e.g. the single market, the single currency, the Schengen Area, cohesion policy), with initiatives in the last area having the greatest potential to affect broad segments of European societies. This is related to the nature of European identity. In contrast to affective national identities, European identity is more cognitive, instrumental and functional, relying less on emotions and more on rational calculations and measurable benefits individuals experience through European integration. Positive effects in the utilitarian dimension of integration are felt not only by Europe’s elites but also by average citizens.
Topic:: European Union, Constructivism, Identity, and National Identity
Political Geography:: Europe

298. Resilience to Online Disinformation: The Role of Civil Society Organizations

Author:: Agnieszka Bejma and Yun-Ju Kao
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The proliferation of online disinformation poses a serious threat to democratic societies, undermining electoral integrity, fueling polarization, and eroding public trust in institutions. Addressing this complex and evolving challenge cannot be the responsibility of governments or civil society actors alone. This article argues that civil society organizations (CSOs), when engaged as co-creators in democratic governance, play a vital role in fostering information resilience in the digital age. Drawing on comparative case studies from Taiwan and Poland: two democracies that have been frequent targets of foreign disinformation campaigns, we examine how CSOs respond to these threats through fact-checking, media monitoring, digital literacy education, and public awareness campaigns. Our findings show that CSOs not only expose misleading content but also empower citizens to critically engage with information ecosystems. The study contributes to the emerging literature on co-governance by demonstrating that effective responses to disinformation require multiactor collaboration, with CSOs serving as institutional partners in safeguarding democratic resilience.
Topic:: Civil Society, Governance, Democracy, Resilience, and Disinformation
Political Geography:: Global Focus

299. Regional Cooperation in the Baltic Sea Region in an Unstable World: Opportunities, Challenges and Threats

Author:: Marta Szulc
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The Baltic Sea Region has been a hub of interregional cooperation, evolving over an extended period of time. The region’s actors have faced and overcome significant challenges, such as the accession of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia to the European Union (2004) and the development and implementation of the European Union Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region (2009). The theoretical framework that guided these integration processes was multilevel governance and Europeanisation, both in a top-down and bottomup approach and a critical juncture approach. The global challenges of recent years have reshaped the potential for collaboration in the region, creating new opportunities for enhanced cooperation and the challenges and risks associated with adapting to change. This article aims to identify the challenges, opportunities, and threats faced by the Baltic Sea Region in recent years and analyze how they have been addressed. The analysis will be based on foundational data and literature. It is hypothesized that the actors of regional cooperation from the Baltic Sea Region have responded with remarkable resilience and adaptability to the opportunities, possibilities, and threats they have faced in recent years, providing a reassuring outlook for the region’s future.
Topic:: Regional Cooperation, Governance, European Union, and Regional Politics
Political Geography:: Europe and Baltic States

300. Could the War Have Been Prevented? US Lessons from Russia’s War against Ukraine

Author:: Andrzej Demczuk
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Polish Political Science Yearbook
Institution:: Polish Political Science Association (PPSA)
Abstract:: The main goal of this article is to analyze American leadership in the context of Russia’s War in Ukraine. Examining the role of the US is important because the results of the study might identify some US strategic and policy weaknesses, which, if applied, might prevent other wars from happening. The main research question has been formulated: Could the Russian War in Ukraine have been prevented? The author’s work is based mainly on the analysis of the interviews with policymakers from the first circle of people in power, mostly the presidents’ advisers who have been particularly involved in implementing American foreign policy towards Russia and Ukraine since the end of the Cold War, as well as Ukrainian officials and those participating in the US-led coalition. US lessons from Russia’s War in Ukraine are of particular significance today, when the world faces a possible confrontation in the Indo-Pacific region between China and Taiwan, as well as the spread of the Middle East turmoil.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, International Security, Leadership, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: North America and United States of America

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COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS