Content Type: Journal Article - CIAO Search Results

151. Thomas Buergenthal and the Americas: A Comprehensive Contribution to Human Rights Protection

Author:: Kai Ambos
Publication Date:: 01-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Institution:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Abstract:: While Thomas Buergenthal’s contribution to the field of human rights is certainly of global importance, it had a particular impact in the Americas, especially during the crucial initial phase of the Inter-American Human Rights System (IAHRS) with the Court as its core institution on which Buergenthal served as one of the first group of judges from 1979 to 1991. In a nutshell, Buergenthal’s contribution may be characterized as a comprehensive and decisive effort to the regional protection of human rights in a threefold way: prudent proactivity (A.), active promotion and optimization (B.), interaction and critical follow-up (C.). At the same time, Buergenthal pursued a strategic-progressive approach which offers valuable lessons for the protection of human rights going well beyond the Americas. Buergenthal’s contribution to human rights and to international law in general cannot be overestimated. His principled and at the same time prudent strategic approach will be greatly missed, especially in our challenging times where international law is under attack at various fronts.
Topic:: Human Rights, International Law, Protection, and Thomas Buergenthal
Political Geography:: South America, Central America, and Americas

152. Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights: Towards an Advanced International Binding Regulation?

Author:: Takis Vidalis
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Institution:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Abstract:: With the rapid development of AI applications in the most important areas of economic, political and social life, the regime for the protection of fundamental rights has been significantly affected. This reality gives rise to initiatives for new legislation at international, supranational and national level. At the level of international law in particular, this legislation currently focuses on the formulation of general principles and guidelines. What is lacking is more specific regulation in situations where the introduction of AI causes uncertainty as to the protection of specific rights, particularly where conflicts arise between them. This article attempts to formulate proposals for such a more specific regulation, based on widely acknowledged principles of international law. Given that technological development and its impact on today’s societies know no national limitations, the adoption of this ‘next step’ in international law may well determine the smooth adaptation of AI to the values of democratic societies.
Topic:: Human Rights, International Law, Regulation, and Artificial Intelligence
Political Geography:: Global Focus

153. The Montreux Convention and its Importance for International Peace and Security

Author:: Ioannis Antonopoulos
Publication Date:: 01-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Institution:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Abstract:: Since its conclusion, the Montreux Convention regarding the regime of the Straits (1936) constitutes an important pillar of the international order. This may be proven by many historical events from the 20th century until today: From the application of the Convention in WWII to its recent invocation in the ongoing Ukrainian conflict. The Convention’s significance derives from its subject-matter, the freedom of transit through the Dardanelles/Turkish Straits in regard to the warships and aircraft in time of peace and in time of war. This is a legal analysis of the Montreux Convention under the scope of International Law providing a brief look at the historical background of events that have led to the signature of the Convention, an extensive presentation of the legal framework of its provisions regarding passage of warships and overflight of aircraft, as well as, some thoughts on its importance for the international peace and security.
Topic:: Security, International Law, History, Peace, International Order, and Montreux Convention
Political Geography:: Europe

154. Ocean Rights – Challenges and Prospects

Author:: Jasper Mührel
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Institution:: The Goettingen Journal of International Law (GoJIL)
Abstract:: The pressing environmental crises of the Anthropocene are inherently connected to ocean health. Yet, the oceans are currently in a critical state. The article explores the idea of giving rights to oceans as one way to enhance their legal protection. It draws on scholarship and practice regarding the existing legal rights of nature, and discusses the challenges and prospects of ocean rights. In doing so, the article raises and addresses three fundamental questions for the recognition of such rights: first, why oceans should hold their own rights in the first place; second, who, i.e. what exact entity or entities, shall hold ocean rights; and finally, how such rights could be implemented and represented and thus be given practical effect.
Topic:: Climate Change, Environment, International Law, Oceans and Seas, Anthropocene, and Rights
Political Geography:: Global Focus

155. Ceuta y Melilla en clave de seguridad nacional

Author:: Luis de la Corte Ibáñez
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal on International Security Studies (RESI)
Institution:: International Security Studies Group (GESI) at the University of Granada
Abstract:: This paper examines the position of Ceuta and Melilla in Spain's national security, considering their strategic importance as Spanish cities located in North Africa and their status as the external border of the European Union. The text begins with a description and assessment of the unique characteristics of Ceuta and Melilla, particularly those of a geographical, institutional and political nature. It then analyses the main threats affecting both cities: irregular immigration, drug trafficking and cross-border organised crime, radicalisation and jihadist terrorism, and hostile political actions. It examines how these threats interact and intensify in the specific context of Ceuta and Melilla. The role of Morocco as a source of risk is also studied. Firstly, as a result of its claim to the two North African cities, which complicates its relations with Spain and calls into question the territorial integrity of the Spanish nation. And secondly, as a result of the Moroccan state's use of its capabilities to create problems in Ceuta and Melilla in order to influence Spanish policy and action. An analysis of the policies implemented by Morocco with negative consequences for the two cities identifies a variety of actions in the ‘grey area’. Based on this diagnosis, the article concludes with a brief reflection and a series of recommendations to contribute to the design of a comprehensive strategy aimed at ensuring the effective defence of Ceuta and Melilla and reducing the structural vulnerabilities of both territories.
Topic:: National Security, Defense Policy, Immigration, Organized Crime, Terrorism, and Gray Zone
Political Geography:: Ceuta, Melilla, Spain, Morocco, and North Africa

156. Introducción al monográfico: Ceuta, Melilla y los desafíos estratégicos para España en su flanco sur

Author:: Luis de la Corte Ibáñez
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal on International Security Studies (RESI)
Institution:: International Security Studies Group (GESI) at the University of Granada
Abstract:: This article introduces a special issue dedicated to analysing the strategic challenges that affect Ceuta and Melilla and, through them, Spain’s national security on its southern flank. Despite the geopolitical significance of both cities, these challenges receive limited attention in public debate and academic research. The contributions to this volume address key issues such as migratory pressure, relations with Morocco and Algeria, grey zone actions, multicultural coexistence, political representation, military foresight, and the legal dimension of potential conflict. In contrast to the silence that often surrounds these matters, the articles presented here offer a rigorous, multidisciplinary and necessary examination.
Topic:: National Security, Defense Policy, International Relations, Immigration, Multiculturalism, and Gray Zone
Political Geography:: Spain, Ceuta, Melilla, North Africa, Morocco, and Algeria

157. Relaciones de España con Marruecos y Argelia y consecuencias para Ceuta y Melilla

Author:: Carlos Echeverría Jesús
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal on International Security Studies (RESI)
Institution:: International Security Studies Group (GESI) at the University of Granada
Abstract:: Morocco claims territories belonging to Spain and Algeria. Ceuta, Melilla, the Vélez de la Gomera and Alhucemas Rocks and the Chafarinas islands, from Spain, and the so-called Eastern Sahara from Algeria. Morocco considers that the Kingdom suffers a “territorial deficit”, and this perception remains today and will remain in the future as an obstacle for the consolidation of stable relations in the region.
Topic:: Regional Politics, Foreign Policy, Territory, and Territorial Disputes
Political Geography:: Morocco, Spain, Europe, and North Africa

158. Las políticas de reconocimiento en lasciudades multiculturales de Ceuta y Melilla

Author:: Carlos Rontomé
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal on International Security Studies (RESI)
Institution:: International Security Studies Group (GESI) at the University of Granada
Abstract:: The cities of Ceuta and Melilla constitute a model of multiculturalism based on minority recognition policies, with special attention to the Islamic minority. The development of these cities as multicultural spaces has been a protracted process that has been consolidated over the last two decades. This process, not without tensions, reveals the difficulties in implementing the recognition policies necessary for the stability of both cities.
Topic:: Multiculturalism, Minorities, Cities, Identity, and Muslims
Political Geography:: Spain, North Africa, Ceuta, and Melilla

159. Representación política e identidad local en Ceuta (1975-2023)

Author:: Fernández. Alicia
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal on International Security Studies (RESI)
Institution:: International Security Studies Group (GESI) at the University of Granada
Abstract:: This article proposes a comparative analysis of the Ceuta political arena, as well as a study of the existing political cleavages, the referents involved in the construction of Ceuta's identity, and their current political practices and preferences.
Topic:: Identity, Representation, Elections, Politics, and Community Cleavages
Political Geography:: Ceuta, Spain, North Africa, and Morocco

160. La Geopolítica de las Regiones Polares: Desafíos y Oportunidades en un Mundo Cambiante

Author:: Samuel Morales
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: Este artículo examina la evolución de la geopolítica en las regiones polares —el Ártico y la Antártida— en el contexto de un mundo marcado por el cambio climático, la competencia por recursos estratégicos, el ascenso de nuevas potencias y la transformación del sistema internacional. A través de un enfoque comparado, se analizan las estructuras de gobernanza, los intereses geoestratégicos, los conflictos emergentes y las oportunidades de cooperación en ambas regiones. En el caso del Ártico, el trabajo identifica una creciente militarización, competencia por hidrocarburos y minerales críticos, así como el interés de actores extrarregionales como China. La gobernanza, basada en el Consejo Ártico y en acuerdos multilaterales como la UNCLOS, muestra limitaciones frente a tensiones interestatales y amenazas ambientales. La Antártida, en contraste, se mantiene bajo un régimen jurídico sólido —el Sistema del Tratado Antártico— que ha logrado preservar la paz y la cooperación científica. Sin embargo, la posible revisión del Protocolo de Madrid en 2048 y la presión por acceder a recursos biológicos y otros activos plantean desafíos futuros. El artículo propone una lectura sistémica e interdisciplinaria de las regiones polares, sugiriendo reformas en los regímenes de gobernanza, mayor inclusión de actores no estatales e instrumentos jurídicos adaptativos.
Topic:: Climate Change, Natural Resources, Governance, and Geopolitics
Political Geography:: Global Focus

161. Regulating Digital Fintech: How States Navigate Power and Geopolitics

Author:: Bipul Biplav Mukherjee
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: This study explores the evolving role of fintech regulation as a strategic tool of geopolitical influence, highlighting how states leverage digital finance, data governance and artificial intelligence to reshape global power structures. It contrasts the regulatory models of the United States, China, and the European Union, each guided by distinct imperatives of innovation, state control, and digital sovereignty. The analysis underscores the growing politicization of fintech and the intensifying race for digital supremacy among major powers. Within this context, the article engages with issues of data decentralization, cross-sectoral data-sharing, and open banking—developments that promote financial inclusion and innovation but also generate complex governance challenges. The study concludes that coordinated transnational regulatory frameworks are essential to safeguarding financial stability and mitigating systemic risks in an increasingly contested and fragmented digital financial ecosystem.
Topic:: International Relations, Governance, European Union, Regulation, Finance, Artificial Intelligence, Banking, and Power Structure
Political Geography:: China, Europe, Asia, and United States of America

162. Cambio Climático y Transición Energética: Una Transformación Geopolítica en Marcha

Author:: Xira Ruiz
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: El artículo analiza la dimensión geopolítica del cambio climático y de la transición energética, en un contexto internacional marcado por la rivalidad entre grandes potencias y la fragmentación del orden global. Se exploran los efectos que estas transformaciones generan en la reconfiguración de las interdependencias materiales, el acceso a recursos críticos y la redefinición de la seguridad energética. El texto se centra especialmente en el papel de Estados Unidos, China y la Unión Europea, así como en las implicaciones para el Sur Global. También analiza el desplazamiento del liderazgo climático desde los marcos multilaterales tradicionales hacia nuevas formas de diplomacia orientadas a la competencia por el liderazgo tecnológico y el control de cadenas de valor. El artículo concluye que la transición energética implica una reorganización estratégica de las relaciones internacionales, que genera nuevas formas de dependencia, redefine las prioridades de seguridad y plantea desafíos para la equidad global y la gobernanza compartida.
Topic:: Climate Change, European Union, Geopolitics, Energy Transition, Energy Security, and Critical Minerals
Political Geography:: China, United States of America, and Global South

163. La Guerra Cognitiva: Opción Estratégica Emergente en la Zona Gris de la Competición Geopolítica

Author:: Soledad Segoviano
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: La guerra cognitiva se define como un conjunto de actividades destinadas a influir, modificar o controlar percepciones, emociones, actitudes, comportamientos y procesos de toma de decisiones con el objetivo de alterar las capacidades cognitivas de individuos y grupos para alcanzar una posición de ventaja estratégica sobre los adversarios sin necesidad de recurrir al uso directo de la fuerza. La guerra cognitiva, un concepto emergente donde se desdibujan los límites entre la guerra y la paz, se fundamenta en el uso de las ciencias neurocognitivas y otros avances científicos y tecnológicos, como la nanotecnología, la biotecnología o la robótica, para manipular y perturbar la cognición humana, un componente fundamental en el actual entorno de seguridad internacional. Este artículo presenta la guerra cognitiva como una opción estratégica al servicio de los intereses de poder y seguridad de diferentes competidores globales en un escenario internacional definido por la transformación y la creciente rivalidad geopolítica.
Topic:: Science and Technology, Geopolitics, Strategic Competition, Hybrid Warfare, Cognitive Warfare, and Neuroscience
Political Geography:: Global Focus

164. Military Humanitarianism: A case of India´s Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief Operations

Author:: Aashriti Gautam
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: The current global scenario, wherein states are increasingly inclined to deploy military force to defend their national interests at the cost of human lives, often overlooks the military's constructive role in safeguarding and reinstating fundamental democratic values, such as respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, through its Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief operations (HADR). Within this contextual framework, the article adds an important dimension to the existing scholarship on the relationship between democratic values and the military, examined through the lens of military humanitarianism. To further substantiate this assertion, the author posits that the global humanitarian aid and disaster relief operations undertaken by the Indian Armed Forces serve as a compelling case study. The analytical findings reveal that India’s HADR efforts reflect its commitment to democratic values, emphasizing transparency, inclusivity, and equitable aid distribution, while strengthening governance, resilience, and strategic influence in global crisis management.
Topic:: Disaster Relief, Armed Forces, Democracy, Military, and Humanitarian Assistance
Political Geography:: South Asia and India

165. La Ciberguerra y su impacto en el Orden Mundial

Author:: Enrique Cubeiro
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: El ciberespacio es un ámbito artificial y en continua expansión de tal forma que el abanico de objetivos potenciales que pueden ser afectados por medio de alguna de las múltiples técnicas de ciberataque es muy amplio. El artículo explica las peculiaridades del ciberespacio, su transversalidad, la opacidad, la asimetría y el impacto del ciberespacio en las potencialidades del débil con respecto al fuerte, así como en la diversidad de las amenazas que genera, la inefectividad de la disuasión, la disociación ofensivo-defensiva, el amplio abanico de posibles daños y su efectividad en creciente progresión. El artículo explica también la dificultad de aplicación en este campo del derecho internacional humanitario donde, además, los Estados juegan con reglas diferentes, y cómo muy pocos Estados cuentan con un poder ciberespacial completo, contribuyendo, con ello, a establecer una jerarquía entre Estados en términos de seguridad.
Topic:: Security, Defense Policy, Human Rights, Cybersecurity, and Cyberspace
Political Geography:: Global Focus

166. La Geopolítica del Espacio Marítimo y Terrestre. “Mediterráneos” y Proyecciones

Author:: Antonio Marquina and Federico Aznar
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: La historia de la humanidad puede plantearse como una sucesión de colisiones entre lo terrestre y lo marítimo, entre lo telúrico y lo talasocrático. La dialéctica entre ambos términos ha cuajado a nivel local en lo mediterráneo, en espacios en los que un mar rodeado por la costa terrestre ocupa una posición de centralidad. De hecho, la Historia ha ido consagrando sucesivamente a estos distintos espacios geográficos como centros de gravedad del mundo por la acumulación de poder que el mar traslada a sus costas. Además, y ya en la actualidad, lo mediterráneo se integra en el proceso de refragmentación de la globalización y también se produce una interconexión entre algunos espacios definidos como “mediterráneos” con importantes consecuencias geopolíticas.
Topic:: History, Geopolitics, and Maritime
Political Geography:: Caribbean, Asia-Pacific, Arctic, and Mediterranean

167. Geopolítica del Espacio Exterior

Author:: Josep Baqués
Publication Date:: 05-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Revista UNISCI/UNISCI Journal
Institution:: Unidad de investigación sobre seguridad y cooperación (UNISCI)
Abstract:: En el campo militar hemos pasado a considerar el espacio como un dominio más, a añadir a los tradicionales (tierra, mar y aire, y, si acaso, el ciberespacio). Esto da cuenta de una novedad, que nos obliga a analizar en qué punto nos encontramos, tanto a nivel tecnológico, como en su impacto en la competición entre grandes potencias, que ha regresado al primer plano, pese a las buenas intenciones del derecho internacional. Este artículo muestra que, lejos de esas buenas intenciones, y de la letra de algunos tratados que, como el OST, aspiraban al establecimiento de un régimen cooperativo, estamos inmersos en una lógica de corte realista, que, en buena medida, traslada al espacio las tensiones existentes en los demás dominios.
Topic:: Geopolitics, Space, and Satellites
Political Geography:: Global Focus

168. From TikTok to Terrorism? The Online Radicalization of European Lone Attackers since October 7, 2023

Author:: Nicolas Stockhammer
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The October 7, 2023, Hamas attack on Israel marked a pivotal moment not only in Middle East security policy but also in the global Islamist and particularly jihadi propaganda landscape. This article examines how the ensuing digital “victimhood-revenge” narrative rapidly spread across platforms like TikTok, fueling a new wave of radicalization among adolescents in Europe. Drawing on six European case studies from 2023 to 2025—including foiled and executed attacks in Vienna, Solingen, and Zurich—this article identifies a recurring radicalization pattern involving emotionally vulnerable, digitally native individuals exposed to algorithm-driven Islamist content in social media, but predominantly on TikTok. The analysis conceptualizes this process through the lens of a “Virtual Caliphate Complex” and explores TikTok’s role as a low-threshold gateway into extremist ecosystems. By analyzing cross-platform mobilization dynamics, aesthetic framing, and the hybridization of lone-actor terrorism with online support networks, the article underscores the urgency of adapting P/CVE strategies to algorithmic environments. The conclusion suggests possible policy emphasis on content moderation, digital literacy, and platform accountability—particularly in the context of the European Union’s Digital Services Act legislation. The article contends that today’s prevailing Islamist radicalization pattern reflects not only ideological motivations but also youth-online-culture dynamics and algorithmic influence.
Topic:: Radicalization, Innovation, Recruitment, TikTok, October 7, and Lone Wolf Attacks
Political Geography:: Europe

169. Regional Terrorism Trends Before and After October 7

Author:: Suat Cubukcu, Eoin B. Healy, and Adam Blackwell
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The October 7, 2023, Hamas attack on Israel triggered a rapid escalation in regional conflict and reshaped the operational landscape of Iran-backed violent non-state actors. Using data from the Global Terrorism Trends and Analysis Center’s GRID database, this article compares patterns of terrorist violence in the Middle East one year before and after the attack. The analyses reveal a dramatic rise in drone, rocket, and missile attacks—particularly by Hezbollah, the Houthis, and the Islamic Resistance in Iraq—against U.S., Israeli, and maritime targets. Despite the volume, these attacks caused limited casualties due to advanced U.S. and Israeli defenses, signaling a broader shift toward low-cost, high-frequency stand-off warfare, causing disruption over decisive outcomes. While Hezbollah and Hamas suffered major losses at the hands of Israeli forces, the Houthis emerged as Iran’s most active and disruptive proxy. The analysis underscores a post-October 7 reconfiguration of the proxy landscape and highlights the strategic limits of Iran’s indirect warfare and its eroded ability to deter direct Israeli attacks on Iran.
Topic:: Terrorism, Hezbollah, Houthis, Hamas, Proxy Groups, Regional Security, October 7, and Non State Actors
Political Geography:: Iran, Middle East, Israel, and Palestine

170. Generation Jihad: The Profile and Modus Operandi of Minors Involved in Recent Islamist Terror Plots in Europe

Author:: Erik Hacker
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: Europe has largely avoided major jihadi attacks in recent years, though experts and officials from the United Nations as well as the Five Eyes intelligence alliance have repeatedly warned of the heightened terror threat increasingly linked to a new generation of teenagers, who radicalize primarily online. Yet, little is known about the specific profiles and modi operandi of these underage suspects. As this trend shows no signs of waning, a clearer understanding of these minors’ specific characteristics is vital in order to adapt counterterrorism responses and sustain the current high rate of foiled plots. This article offers an in-depth account of the background and attack planning behaviors of 44 minors who planned to carry out jihadi terror attacks in Europe since 2022 but were arrested before they could act. By comparing their characteristics to adult terror suspects, it highlights the distinctive traits of this new generation of Islamist extremists and explores the strategic implications for counterterrorism efforts moving forward.
Topic:: Security, Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, Islamism, and Youth
Political Geography:: Europe

171. Feature Commentary: An Assessment of Operation Rough Rider

Author:: Gregory Johnsen
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: On March 15, 2025, the United States launched an offensive against the Houthis in Yemen with the stated goal of restoring “freedom of navigation” in the Red Sea and ending Houthi attacks on commercial shipping. Fifty-two days later, on May 5, the United States ended its operations in Yemen following an agreement with the Houthis that the group would no longer target U.S. military vessels or U.S. flagged ships. This article provides an assessment of that campaign, known as Operation Rough Rider, looking at what the United States hit, who was killed, and what it cost as well as how the Houthis have rebounded and regrouped, the current situation on the ground in Yemen, and what is likely to come next.
Topic:: Counter-terrorism, Houthis, Shipping, Military Operations, and Operation Rough Rider
Political Geography:: Middle East, Yemen, and United States of America

172. The Escalation of U.S. Airstrikes in Somalia and the Role of Perceived Threats to the U.S. Homeland

Author:: David Sterman
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: In 2025, the United States substantially increased the pace of its airstrikes in Somalia. At the same time, it increasingly cited not just regional security rationales for the increased pace of strikes but also rationales rooted in an assessed potential threat to the U.S. homeland from Somalia—in particular from the Islamic State-Somalia’s recruitment of foreign fighters. This article examines the increased pace of strikes, the rationales that have been cited to explain the increase, and what existing evidence reveals about the potential threat to the U.S. homeland. It also underscores the need for greater clarity from the U.S. government regarding its assessment of the extent of such a threat.
Topic:: Counter-terrorism, Islamic State, Al Shabaab, Airstrikes, and Military Operations
Political Geography:: Africa, Somalia, and United States of America

173. A View from the CT Foxhole: Richard Feakes, Former Australian Ambassador for Counter-Terrorism

Author:: Don Rassler and Sean Morrow
Publication Date:: 06-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: Richard Feakes served as Australia’s Ambassador for Counter-Terrorism from May 2023 to November 2024. Prior to that, he was the Commonwealth Deputy Counter Terrorism Coordinator, Australia’s Ambassador to Afghanistan, and Deputy Head of Mission in Iraq. He has served in a number of strategic and national security positions across the Australian government, including as Assistant Secretary for Afghanistan and Pakistan and as a Senior Adviser within the Prime Minister’s Department.
Topic:: Security, Counter-terrorism, Partnerships, Interview, and Threat Assessment
Political Geography:: Australia and Indo-Pacific

174. A View from the CT Foxhole: Adam Hadley, Executive Director, Tech Against Terrorism

Author:: Don Rassler
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: Adam Hadley CBE is the Founder and Executive Director of Tech Against Terrorism, a public-private partnership dedicated to disrupting terrorists online. Tech Against Terrorism was established as an initiative of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED). Hadley is also the CEO of QuantSpark, an AI innovation consultancy.
Topic:: Science and Technology, Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, and Interview
Political Geography:: Global Focus

175. Understanding China’s New Counterterrorism Ambitions in Africa

Author:: Jason Warner
Publication Date:: 08-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: China has recently been pursuing a much more aggressive stance in African security affairs, including playing a more engaged role in counterterrorism (CT). Where is China engaged in CT in Africa, and by what means? What challenges would China face in engaging more robustly in African CT? Most importantly, why is China newly expressing interest in engaging in the African CT landscape at this particular moment? In the main, this piece argues that despite ostensible rationales related to self-defense of economic interests and solidarity with African states, at its core, Beijing’s primary motivations for entering the African CT space are to diversify its means of influence in Africa beyond its historical “economics-first” approach. Recognizing that engaging in African CT is a high-risk but potentially high-reward activity (which other global powers have recently engaged in with mixed results), Beijing likely believes it has a new genre of CT assistance—less kinetic, more economic, and rooted in equitable partnerships—that represents a fundamentally new and productive means of gaining influence in Africa. Yet, China faces challenges in its African CT pursuits, including reconciling whether its cautious ethos can stomach the turbulent landscape of African terrorism; how to deal with a saturated African CT space; and how not to fall victim to the same pitfalls as other global powers that have recently engaged in African CT. Nevertheless, if China can prove that its cautious non-military-first approach is fundamentally different from existing CT value propositions from external states, Beijing could deeply rival, and potentially replace, Washington as the partner of choice for security cooperation in Africa.
Topic:: Security, Foreign Policy, Counter-terrorism, Strategic Competition, Foreign Influence, and Security Cooperation
Political Geography:: Africa, China, and Asia

176. Feature Commentary: Confronting Cartels: Military Considerations South of the Border

Author:: Brian Michael Jenkins
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: Possible U.S. military action against Mexico’s drug cartels poses unique challenges. The situation is complicated, and the United States must be prepared for possible counteractions. The cartels are not a single actor. If attacked, they may avoid direct confrontation, accepting temporary losses, anticipating that the United States will not sustain a long campaign. Or Mexico’s cartels may respond violently, exploiting U.S. vulnerabilities in Mexico—and possibly north of the border. The government of Mexico is a separate actor. It can assist or undermine U.S. efforts. Past government campaigns against the cartels led to soaring rates of criminal violence. Chaos in Mexico could have serious implications for U.S. homeland security. The United States needs a ‘Red Team’ to examine a range of scenarios. The article proceeds in six parts: Part I contrasts recent U.S. military actions in Yemen and Iran with possible military action in Mexico. Part II examines perceptions of the threat. Part III examines how the history of U.S.-Mexico relations will shape the battlefield. Part IV reviews our own experience in combating foreign drug traffickers, offering some preliminary takeaways. Part V examines possible options. Part VI looks at how the cartels might react, how the United States might be forced to respond—and how other adversaries of the United States might attempt to exploit the situation.
Topic:: Counter-terrorism, Borders, Organized Crime, Cartels, and Military Operations
Political Geography:: Latin America, North America, Mexico, and United States of America

177. Uzbek Foreign Fighter Groups in the Syrian Jihad: The Evolution of KIB and KTJ from 2011 through 2025

Author:: Kathleen Collins
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The fall of Bashar al-Assad’s regime to the forces of Hayat Tahir al-Sham (HTS) revealed the ongoing significance of multiple foreign fighter groups in Syria. These militias were instrumental in supporting HTS during its campaign for Damascus last fall. Two primarily ethnic Uzbek fighter groups that originated in Central Asia were prominent among them: the Imam Bukhari Battalion (Katibat Imam al-Bukhari, KIB) and the Tavhid and Jihad Battalion (Katibat Tavhid va Jihod, KTJ). Each had pledged allegiance to al-Qa`ida and fought alongside al-Qa`ida’s Syrian branch Jabhat al-Nusra. Each remained closely connected to al-Qa`ida even after al-Nusra rebranded as HTS. This article traces the origins and development of these Uzbek-led militias and argues that they constitute a resilient force of battle-hardened fighters, demonstrating remarkable staying power in Syria. Furthermore, this article demonstrates that KIB and KTJ still embrace a salafi-jihadi ideology and goals. It also emphasizes KIB’s and KTJ’s ongoing ties to al-Qa`ida and the Taliban and recommends that policymakers and counterterrorism experts consider the implications of their continued presence in Syria under the new regime, as well as the potential consequences if they leave Syria.
Topic:: Counter-terrorism, Syrian War, Jihad, Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), and Foreign Fighters
Political Geography:: Middle East and Syria

178. Commentary: The Dangers of Overreliance on Generative AI in the CT Fight

Author:: Nicholas Clark
Publication Date:: 08-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The explosive rise in generative artificial intelligence (AI) use has sparked debate over its applicability in military domains such as counterterrorism (CT). This article critically evaluates the role of large language models (LLMs) in CT, arguing that their utility remains limited and potentially detrimental when applied indiscriminately. After providing a high-level overview of the mathematical foundations of LLMs, the article demonstrates how these tools can produce misleading or confidently incorrect outputs. Through case studies and empirical findings, this article underscores the cognitive risks of overreliance on AI in CT planning and intelligence operations, including reduced analytical engagement and inhibited creativity among operators. While generative AI may assist in automating routine tasks, it lacks the capacity for nuanced judgment, uncertainty quantification, and dynamic responsiveness critical to effective CT work. The article concludes by advocating for a shift in focus toward enhancing education in probabilistic reasoning, such as Bayesian inference, and building robust data governance infrastructures. Such foundational improvements are prerequisites for any effective or responsible integration of AI into CT domains.
Topic:: Counter-terrorism, Artificial Intelligence, and Large Language Models (LLMs)
Political Geography:: Global Focus

179. Moving Targets: Implications of the Russo-Ukrainian War for Drone Terrorism

Author:: David Hambling
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: Small and commercially available drones in the hands of violent extremists pose a rapidly growing terrorist threat. This article examines that threat in the light of the invasion of Ukraine. Consumer drones such as DJI Mavics, FPV racing drones, and Shahed-style one-way attack drones have become potent weapons. Their affordability, accessibility, and adaptability enable precision strikes, bypass traditional defenses, and democratize air power for state and non-state actors alike. This article details how these drones have been used in Ukraine—from grenade-dropping quadcopters to long-range strategic attacks—and highlights their potential adoption by violent extremist organizations (VEOs). The second part of the article assesses the implications for global counterterrorism, emphasizing the psychological impact, scalability, and low operational risk of drone attacks. It concludes by outlining countermeasures, including electronic jamming, physical barriers, kinetic interception, and the growing role of drone-on-drone defense, urging a comprehensive and adaptive response to this multifaceted and accelerating threat.
Topic:: Science and Technology, Counter-terrorism, Drones, Innovation, Armed Conflict, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, Eurasia, and Ukraine

180. Tehran’s Homeland Option: Terror Pathways for Iran to Strike in the United States

Author:: Matthew Levitt
Publication Date:: 08-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The 12-day Iran war may be over, but the threat of Iranian reprisal attacks now looms large, and will for the foreseeable future. European authorities exposed plots in Sweden and Germany even as the war was being waged, and Israeli authorities issued a warning over potential attacks in the United Arab Emirates a couple of weeks later, specifically citing heightened concerns in the wake of the war with Iran. Iranian operatives or their agents could also attempt to carry out attacks inside the United States, leveraging what U.S. counterterrorism officials have describe as a “homeland option” developed over years. Given the U.S. role in bombing the Fordow nuclear complex, it should not be a surprise that U.S. authorities quickly issued a terrorism advisory warning of potential Iranian plots in the homeland. Drawing on past cases of Iranian plots in the United States and elsewhere, this article explores the primary pathways available to Iran conduct or enable a terrorism act in the United States. These include deploying Iranian agents, criminal surrogates, terrorist proxies, or actively seeking to inspire lone offenders to carry out attacks within the homeland.
Topic:: Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, Armed Conflict, and Regional Security
Political Geography:: Iran, Middle East, Israel, Palestine, North America, and United States of America

181. Militant Violence in Jammu and Kashmir Post-Abrogation of Article 370

Author:: Animesh Roul
Publication Date:: 09-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: This article presents a chronological and thematic analysis of militant violence in Jammu and Kashmir from the abrogation of Article 370 of the Indian Constitution in August 2019 to July 2025. It traces three distinct phases: an initial decline in attacks due to lockdowns and security restrictions (2019-2020); a resurgence marked by hybrid militancy, targeted killings, and intimidation of civilians (2021-2023); and a lethal escalation involving high-profile and audacious assaults, intensified counterterrorism operations, and cross-border tensions (2024-2025). The April 2025 Pahalgam massacre—which killed 26 people, mostly Hindus—marked a turning point, prompting India’s limited military offensive Operation Sindoor against militant bases in Pakistan-administered Kashmir, followed by Operation Mahadev to track and eliminate the militants involved in the violence. The article examines these developments to assess the evolving threat, highlighting how militancy has shifted toward hybrid façade units backed by Pakistan-based legacy terror groups.
Topic:: Security, Terrorism, Territorial Disputes, Violence, and Armed Conflict
Political Geography:: Pakistan, India, and Jammu and Kashmir

182. A View from the CT Foxhole: James Stack, Director, Great Plains Diagnostic Network

Author:: Don Rassler and Kristina Hummel
Publication Date:: 08-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: James Stack, Ph.D., is an internationally recognized leader in the field of plant biosecurity. A professor in the Department of Plant Pathology at Kansas State University since 2003, Dr. Stack provided leadership in the development of the National Plant Diagnostic Network (NPDN) and became regional director of the Great Plains Diagnostic Network (GPDN), one of the five regional networks, soon after it was formed. From 2006 to 2008, he served as the director of KSU’s Biosecurity Research Institute, a biocontainment facility for plant, animal, and human health. Dr. Stack’s research focuses on genome-informed diagnostics for plant-pathogenic bacteria to the subspecific and population levels of discrimination, as well as research on the epidemiology and ecology of toxigenic fungi and bacteria. He speaks regularly on plant biosecurity topics, to include at the U.S. Naval War College and the National Academy of Sciences, among other forums.
Topic:: National Security, Science and Technology, Terrorism, Biosecurity, and Interview
Political Geography:: Global Focus

183. The Changing Character of Terrorism and U.S. Counterterrorism

Author:: Don Rassler, Kristina Hummel, Brian Dodwell, and Ned Curry
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: The competition between terror movements and counterterrorism forces is an interactive and iterative game, as the actions taken by one side are designed to defeat, circumvent, or shape the activity taken by the opposing players. To better understand these interactive dynamics, it is important to evaluate how terrorism and counterterrorism have been evolving. This article first takes high-level stock of how the spread, structure, scale, and speed of terrorism have been changing in recent years and highlights key challenges and implications for counterterrorism. It then evaluates the United States’ ongoing effort to find a sustainable counterterrorism path, a journey that has been filled with challenges, benefits, dilemmas, and opportunities, and discusses how key factors have been shaping the direction, reach, and pace of change. An important takeaway from these reviews is that while the threat of international terrorism is not what it used to be, there is a lot of change occurring across the terrorism landscape. U.S. counterterrorism has also been undergoing some important shifts, and there are open questions about whether U.S. CT forces and assets will be spread further. If not managed carefully, change taking place across these two ‘systems’ could interact in ways that may disrupt CT progress.
Topic:: National Security, Terrorism, and Counter-terrorism
Political Geography:: North America and United States of America

184. The Best of Times, the Worst of Times: The Repressed Islamic State Affiliates

Author:: Daniel Milton
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: It has been more than 10 years since Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi ascended the pulpit in the al-Nuri mosque to announce that the group known as the Islamic State had, at least in its own eyes, fulfilled the requirement to become a caliphate. In doing so, he opened an era of expansion for the Islamic State in which it welcomed numerous affiliates into its fold from all over the world. While some of those affiliates remain to this day, others appear to have faded away, at least when it comes to carrying out operations. This article explores these “repressed” affiliates in an effort to provide a brief overview of potential reasons behind their decline. The stories of each of these affiliates contain both similarities and differences. The repression of Islamic State affiliates seems to be the result of a combination of factors, ranging from military power of external actors to in-group conflict to an inability to gain a foothold among a target population. The importance of nuanced counterterrorism efforts, as opposed to a one-size-fits-all approach, is the main takeaway of this analysis.
Topic:: Violent Extremism, Counter-terrorism, and Islamic State
Political Geography:: Iraq, Middle East, and Syria

185. Foreign Terrorist Fighters: A Threat in Stasis

Author:: Kim Cragin
Publication Date:: 12-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: CTC Sentinel
Institution:: The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point
Abstract:: This article examines the historical trajectory of “foreign terrorist fighters” associated with the Islamic State and its antecedents, al-Qa`ida and the Arab Afghans. The article argues that the threat of foreign fighters today is best understood as being in stasis. Foreign fighters continue to pursue external operations against the West. They also transfer new tactics, techniques, and procedures between conflict zones. These patterns are not new. Beyond these historical patterns, foreign terrorist fighters have become increasingly adept at reaching out to new sympathizers and serving as interlocutors between Islamic State affiliates in conflict zones and their sympathizers. FTFs also have utilized end-to-end encryption technologies, generative artificial intelligence, and cryptocurrencies to magnify their impact. Nevertheless, it is not yet time for alarm. Countries have strengthened their laws, intelligence-sharing, and law enforcement coordination over the past decade. If governments continue to build on this collective effort and devote resources toward mitigating foreign fighter flows, the threat should remain in stasis.
Topic:: Terrorism, Counter-terrorism, Al Qaeda, Islamic State, and Foreign Fighters
Political Geography:: Global Focus

186. The Impact of Trump’s Anti-Immigration Discourse on Asylum Applications in the Balkans (2017–2021)

Author:: Vasil Pavlov and Siddharth Kanojia
Publication Date:: 04-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: Immigration has become an increasingly contentious political and social issue in Europe over the past decade. The growing influx of asylum seekers has been driven by deteriorating security conditions, armed conflicts, and political and economic instability in various regions, alongside the comparatively higher living standards in Europe. As a global hegemon, the United States has indirectly shaped migration patterns in peripheral regions such as the Balkans. This paper examines how President Donald Trump’s anti-immigration discourse during his first term (2017–2021) coincided with an approximately 45% decrease in asylum applications from the Balkans. Drawing on official statistics and employing Critical Discourse Analysis, the study explores how US rhetoric influenced regional policy emulation. The findings underscore the transnational impact of populist discourse and call for a critical reassessment of migration governance in key transit regions.
Topic:: Migration, Immigration, Populism, Donald Trump, Asylum, and Securitization
Political Geography:: Eastern Europe and Balkans

187. Consular Protection in Crisis: Vietnam’s Response During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Author:: Hanh Thi Nguyen and Linh Hoang Vo
Publication Date:: 04-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: Consular protection represents a core function through which states uphold their responsibilities and deliver essential services to citizens residing or traveling abroad, particularly during times of crisis. The COVID-19 pandemic posed unprecedented challenges to these efforts, testing the capacity of governments worldwide. Vietnam, despite being a middle-income country with limited resources, mounted an effective response to protect its citizens overseas. This article presents Vietnam’s experience as an instructive case study, analyzed through the lens of Tindall and ’t Hart’s general analytical framework for consular protection in emergency situations. The findings highlight the importance of adapting existing theoretical frameworks to better reflect the constraints faced by developing countries and to address the complexities introduced by globally disruptive crises.
Topic:: Developing World, Crisis Management, COVID-19, Middle-Income Countries, and Consular Protection
Political Geography:: Asia, Vietnam, and Southeast Asia

188. Securitization Theory Insights on the Formation of an EU Army

Author:: Iva Zutic
Publication Date:: 04-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: This paper analyzes the narrative securitized by Eurofederalists in support of establishing an EU army. The main objective is to identify and categorize the assertions employed by securitizing actors in their speech acts, examined through the framework of securitization theory. To assess the impact of this securitized narrative, the study evaluates its reception among the EU public before and after the outbreak of the war in Ukraine. The research reveals that securitizing actors cluster their assertions around four advantages: strategic, political, societal, and economic. Furthermore, the findings indicate that by framing these advantages within their narrative, securitizing actors have successfully influenced public opinion in the EU to favor the establishment of an EU army.
Topic:: Defense Policy, Public Opinion, European Union, Economy, Army, Securitization, and Russia-Ukraine War
Political Geography:: Europe

189. The Weaponization of Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels as Instruments of Geopolitical Leverage in the EU–Russia Context

Author:: Nataliia Khoma and Maiia Nikolaieva
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: This paper examines how energy functions as a strategic instrument of geopolitical coercion, focusing on Russia’s prolonged weaponization of natural gas and the European Union’s evolving response. Building on Soviet-era infrastructure, Moscow has employed price increases, supply cuts, and control of pipelines to pressure states. At the same time, the EU has countered with sanctions, diversification of suppliers, and accelerated investment in renewable energy. For more than fifty years, energy has served as leverage that blurs the boundary between economics and security, imposing heavy economic and political costs on both producers and consumers. Interdependence amplifies these vulnerabilities, allowing energy to operate as a “weapon” on both supply and demand sides. Although the EU plans to end Russian gas imports by 2027, Moscow’s continuing circumvention efforts demonstrate that energy remains a critical tool of power and national security worldwide.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, European Union, Fossil Fuels, Energy, Russia-Ukraine War, and Weaponization
Political Geography:: Russia, Europe, and Ukraine

190. Protecting Fundamental Freedoms and Promoting Gender Equality: The Case for Binding Quotas on Macedonian Corporate Boards

Author:: Emilija Gjorgjioska, Margarita Janeska, Tatjana Spaseska, and Aneta Risteska Jankuloska
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: This paper analyzes gender balance on the boards of companies listed on the Macedonian Stock Exchange (MSE). Despite formal equality, statistics reveal persistent vertical segregation in top management. A comparative assessment places North Macedonia favorably within the Western Balkans and the European Union; however, further progress is still needed. Adopting a legal gender quota, as outlined in Directive (EU) 2022/238, would help close the gap, fulfill obligations under CEDAW, and reinforce the country’s commitment to the United Nations’ fifth Sustainable Development Goal on gender equality, ensuring that fundamental freedoms, gender balance, and equal remuneration are upheld in practice rather than merely acknowledged.
Topic:: European Union, Sustainable Development Goals, Corporations, Gender Equality, and Macedonian Stock Exchange (MSE)
Political Geography:: Europe, Eastern Europe, and North Macedonia

191. Accessing Foreign Policy Information in the Digital Age: Evidence from Greece

Author:: Péter Kacziba
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: The digitalization of governance and media has increased the visibility and accessibility of foreign policy, reshaping how citizens engage with international affairs. However, limited research exists on how digital platforms influence the way foreign policy information is accessed and evaluated in specific national contexts. This study addresses this gap by examining the case of Greece. Drawing on a nationwide online survey conducted in February 2024 (N = 800), this analysis investigates citizens’ source preferences, perceptions of credibility, and engagement patterns across socio-demographic groups. The findings reveal that digital platforms have emerged as the dominant sources of foreign policy information. Nevertheless, traditional dynamics of political polarization, selective trust, and fragmented media consumption remain prevalent. These results underscore the constraints of digitalization in expanding democratic participation and highlight the need for foreign policy research and practice to pay greater attention to public opinion and societal dynamics.
Topic:: Foreign Policy, Public Opinion, Democracy, Media, Polarization, and Digitalization
Political Geography:: Europe and Greece

192. Freedom and Personal Autonomy as the Foundation of Private International Law and the Cornerstone of Individual Rights in the AI Era

Author:: Antoni Abat i Ninet
Publication Date:: 04-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: An examination of private international law manuals and relevant legislation demonstrates that the autonomy of the will constitutes a fundamental epistemological principle underpinning the field. However, this freedom is neither absolute nor unbounded. The binding force of pacta sunt servanda, the limitations imposed by public law, the operation of mandatory rules (lois de police), the demands of public policy (ordre public), and the necessity of protecting weaker parties all constrain its exercise. In contemporary private international law, the principle has evolved into a pervasive and dynamic norm, deeply embedded in legal practice while continuously adapting to new challenges. In the emerging era of artificial intelligence, the autonomy of the will must be reaffirmed as a cornerstone of individual rights, ensuring the preservation of personal freedom amidst technological transformations.
Topic:: International Law, European Union, Artificial Intelligence, Autonomy, Freedom, Immanuel Kant, and Individual Rights
Political Geography:: Europe

193. Strategic Trade Diversification: Engagement of the Visegrad Group with the Western Balkans

Author:: Lubica Zubalova, Kristina Drienikova, and Nastasia Matusova
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: The Visegrad Group countries (Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, and Slovakia) and the Western Balkan countries share strong historical trade and cultural ties, and their trade relations are becoming increasingly significant in the context of geopolitical changes and economic transformations in the region. Recent trends indicate growing mutual trade, and analysis of the Trade Complementarity Index reveals high trade compatibility, confirming the potential for effective cooperation. The Trade Intensity Index also shows high values, particularly for Hungary. This paper evaluates trade exchanges and examines the intensity and compatibility of economic relations, with a focus on the Visegrad Group countries’ trade with Serbia, their key trade partner. The results suggest that enhanced cooperation between the regions could bring substantial economic benefits and strengthen regional stability and competitiveness.
Topic:: Regional Cooperation, International Affairs, Trade, Visegrad Group, and Regional Stability
Political Geography:: Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, Czechia, and Western Balkans

194. Artificial Intelligence and Politics: Legal Dilemmas and Risks to Democracy

Author:: Daniele Battista and Gabriele Uva
Publication Date:: 04-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: The rapid progress of AI has raised questions about its political, ethical, and legal impact, particularly regarding institutional transparency and citizens’ privacy. This study examined the implications of AI in European politics, evaluating whether it enhances democracy or fosters algorithmic manipulations that contravene ethical and legal norms. Adopting a deductive approach, it examined narratives, scenarios, and expectations regarding the use of AI in decision-making and governance mechanisms. The aim was to offer a critical perspective on the dynamics at play, highlighting the risks, opportunities, and legal protections available. The study contributed to the academic debate on the ethical and regulatory implications of AI in governance, providing insights for future regulation and public policy.
Topic:: Politics, European Union, Democracy, Ethics, Privacy, Artificial Intelligence, Data, and Decision-Making
Political Geography:: Europe

195. Constitutionalizing the Environment in 21st Century Europe: Innovations for Greener Constitutions

Author:: Goce Kocevski
Publication Date:: 04-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: This paper analyzes and systematizes innovations in the constitutional entrenchment of environmental protection provisions, moving beyond the mere recognition of the right to a healthy environment or the affirmation of general policy declarations. Using the comparative constitutional method, it examines relevant provisions in the constitutions of France, Montenegro, Hungary, Austria, and Slovenia. The findings reveal significant diversity in the scope and manner of environmental constitutionalization, contrasting with the similarities observed among constitutions adopted in the 1990s. Identified approaches include the integration of environmental law principles, the constitutional recognition of procedural environmental rights, and the establishment of institutions dedicated to environmental protection. These constitutional innovations demonstrate significant potential for broader adoption, thereby strengthening frameworks for environmental protection and enhancing the safeguarding of human rights and liberties.
Topic:: Environment, Human Rights, Constitution, Innovation, and Amendment
Political Geography:: Europe

196. Libertarian Perspectives on Social Change: The Overton Window and the Role of the State in Macedonian Society

Author:: Nikola Lj. Ilievski
Publication Date:: 04-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: This paper analyzes public opinion on the state’s role in Macedonian society. The Ideological Carreau and the Overton Window of Political Possibilities frameworks visually represent the findings. The primary objective was to develop a reliable tool for measuring public attitudes and monitoring potential shifts in political culture. To gather the necessary data, an online political quiz was created. The responses were analyzed using arithmetic means to determine public opinion’s central tendencies and position them within the Ideological Carreau. The analysis revealed that public attitudes toward the state’s role predominantly align with the conceptual model of the liberal democratic state and the ideological orientation of modern liberalism.
Topic:: Public Opinion, Ideology, State, Liberalism, Libertarianism, Social Change, and Overton Window
Political Geography:: Europe and North Macedonia

197. Criminal Dimensions of Forced Sterilization of Romani Women: A Focus on Gender-Based Violence and Deprivation of Liberty

Author:: Olga Koshevaliska and Roze Surlovska Ristevska
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: This paper examines the forced sterilization of Romani women as a serious violation of human rights and a fundamental denial of personal liberty. Drawing on legal, sociological, and feminist frameworks, the analysis demonstrates how this practice reflects intersecting forms of racial and gender-based discrimination within healthcare systems and state institutions. Romani women in vulnerable socio-economic circumstances have been systematically denied autonomy over their reproductive choices, highlighting broader patterns of structural exclusion. The findings emphasize the need to address forced sterilization not only as a criminal offense but also as a form of institutionalized violence that requires urgent legal, policy, and institutional reforms to protect personal liberty and advance reproductive justice.
Topic:: Women, Gender Based Violence, Roma, Discrimination, Systemic Racism, Liberty, Antigypsyism, and Forced Sterilization
Political Geography:: Europe

198. India–Japan Defense Partnership in the Indo-Pacific: Geopolitical Prospects and Challenges Under Trump

Author:: Yen Pham Thi
Publication Date:: 10-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: This article examines the India–Japan defense partnership in the Indo-Pacific, focusing on its geopolitical prospects and challenges under the Trump administration. Strengthened by shared concerns over China’s rising influence and the convergence of their Indo-Pacific strategies, the partnership has evolved beyond symbolic engagement to include joint exercises, technology sharing, and defense dialogues aimed at preserving a free and rules-based regional order. At the same time, India’s reliance on Russian defense equipment, Japan’s dependence on US security guarantees, and the “America First” policy under Trump pose significant constraints. To sustain and deepen cooperation, both nations must enhance bilateral mechanisms, pursue strategic autonomy, expand multilateral engagements, and promote regional norms. These steps are essential for building a resilient, sustainable, and strategic partnership in the Indo-Pacific amid a shifting US foreign policy landscape.
Topic:: Defense Policy, Partnerships, Geopolitics, and Donald Trump
Political Geography:: Japan, China, India, Asia, and Indo-Pacific

199. Crossroads of Peace: Advancing Regional Integration and Global Trade Through Post-Conflict Cooperation

Author:: Gevorg Papoyan and Albert Hayrapetyan
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: This article examines the potential economic benefits of the Crossroads of Peace (CoP) initiative proposed by the Government of Armenia. To assess regional trade dynamics, three indicators were applied: the Export Similarity Index (ESI), the Trade Complementarity Index (TCI), and the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA). The findings reveal that the ESI between Armenia and its regional partners, Türkiye and Azerbaijan, is 0.25, indicating minimal competition in export markets. In contrast, the TCI score of 0.5 from the region to Armenia suggests a relatively higher degree of complementarity, highlighting stronger opportunities for regional exports to Armenia than vice versa. Furthermore, Armenia’s projected trade volume with Türkiye in 2024 is estimated at USD 787 million, underscoring the initiative’s potential to foster significant economic exchange.
Topic:: Exports, Trade, Regional Economy, Freedom of Movement, and Post-Conflict
Political Geography:: Turkey, Caucasus, Armenia, and Azerbaijan

200. The Portrayal of Religious Freedom in Media Discourse: Evidence from Kosovo

Author:: Ilmije Kuqi and Lulzim Esati
Publication Date:: 07-2025
Content Type:: Journal Article
Journal:: Journal of Liberty and International Affairs
Institution:: Institute for Research and European Studies (IRES)
Abstract:: This study examines how religious freedom is portrayed in Kosovo’s media and how citizens perceive related tolerance and hate speech. A quantitative survey (N = 150) was conducted from March to April 2025 across six regions using simple random sampling. While 90% of respondents affirmed that religious freedom exists in Kosovo, only 35% rated media coverage as very good or excellent. Sixty percent believed Muslims receive the most media attention, and half noted that ethical standards in religious reporting are only partially upheld. The findings reveal a gap between the legal guarantee of religious freedom and its representation in the media, with negative narratives and online hate speech undermining democratic values and social cohesion in post-conflict Kosovo.
Topic:: Public Opinion, Media, Hate Speech, Social Cohesion, Society, Freedom of Religion, and Post-Conflict
Political Geography:: Europe, Kosovo, and Balkans

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COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS