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2241. China’s “New Generation” AI-Brain Project

Author:
William Hannas and Huey-Meei Chang
Publication Date:
11-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
PRISM
Institution:
Institute for National Strategic Studies (INSS), National Defense University
Abstract:
China is pursuing what its leaders call a “first-mover advantage” in artificial intelligence (AI), facilitated by a state-backed plan to achieve breakthroughs by modeling human cognition. While not unique to China, the research warrants concern since it raises the bar on AI safety, leverages ongoing U.S. research, and exposes U.S. deficiencies in tracking foreign technological threats. The article begins with a review of the statutory basis for China’s AI-brain program, examines related scholarship, and analyzes the supporting science. China’s advantages are discussed along with the implications of this brain-inspired research. Recommendations to address our concerns are offered in conclusion. All claims are based on primary Chinese data.
Topic:
Science and Technology, Research, and Artificial Intelligence
Political Geography:
China and Asia

2242. The Origins of Russian Conduct

Author:
Clint Reach
Publication Date:
11-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
PRISM
Institution:
Institute for National Strategic Studies (INSS), National Defense University
Abstract:
In 1947 George Kennan argued for a policy of U.S. containment of the Soviet Union based on his assessment of the origins of Soviet conduct. Because the Kremlin was ideologically bent on global domination through a zero-sum competition with the West, political accommodation was not an appropriate strategy. Fifty years after the “X” article appeared, Kennan saw in the Russian Federation a wholly different animal than its Soviet predecessor. Russia was in the early stages of democracy, and its development should be shepherded by a magnanimous West. Based on this updated view of Russia, Kennan asserted that the enlargement of NATO would be “the most fateful error of American policy in the entire post-cold-war era.”1 Implicit in Kennan’s argument was that the nature of the new Russian regime was not inherently antagonistic toward the United States and the West. There was not an underlying ideology or feature of the new political and economic system that led him to conclude that confrontation with Russia was unavoidable or that cooperation was impossible. This assumption turned out to be one of the critical dividing lines in the debate on how to deal with the Russians after the Cold War, and it is implicitly found in discourse on Russia policy that continues to this day.2 What are the origins of Russian conduct? Has Russian domestic and foreign policy predominantly been the result of misguided U.S. and European actions? Would the Kremlin have behaved differently if these policies had been more accommodating to Russia as a separate but equal partner in European integration? As in 1947, the answers to these questions are directly tied to current and future U.S. policy toward Russia. Those who believe Russian conduct is largely a reaction to Western actions that threaten Russia’s core strategic interests are likely to promote policies guided by a sense of compromise.3 Those who believe Russia would have acted similarly even if NATO had been disbanded or if the West had been more sensitive to Russian interests likely support a tougher military and diplomatic line with Russia and will be less interested in engagement. Yet there is rarely a full examination of the underlying reasons for promoting a particular approach.4 It is often taken as a given that we can do business with Russia or we cannot. To develop an optimal strategy toward Russia, it is important to clearly articulate a reasoning for coming to one conclusion or the other. Kennan’s reasoning was that Russia in the 1990s was on a path toward becoming a member of the European project. Russian embrace of Western political norms would mitigate the potential for the reemergence of dividing lines and the need for American security guarantees in areas of historical Russian influence. The United States, however, was considering actions that would derail this process by fomenting nationalist and militaristic sentiments within Russia that might otherwise be marginalized due to the lack of a legitimate Western threat. The extent to which this turned out to be the case is difficult to determine. Since the late 1990s, there have been a number of U.S. and Russian actions outside the NATO enlargement dispute that have muddied the analytical waters. But, as Kennan said, “The attempt must be made if [Russian] conduct is to be understood and effectively countered.”5
Topic:
Security, Foreign Policy, NATO, History, and Strategic Competition
Political Geography:
Russia and United States of America

2243. Concepts and Historiographic Debate from the Autobiography of Olaudah Equiano (1745–1797)

Author:
Artur José Renda Vitorino and Gisele Maria Beloto
Publication Date:
12-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:
This text seeks to explain the fundamental concepts for historicizing the topic of Africa, such as the concept of “slavery”, contextualizing the origin of its use in the continent (“domestic slavery” or “dependence” situation due to integration with the family group, “slavery” from the influences of Arab expansion in the 7th century and the transatlantic slave trade); and possible conceptual transformations through the connections mentioned, along with the historiographic debate.
Topic:
Slavery, Historiography, Dependence, and Olaudah Equiano
Political Geography:
Africa

2244. Exchange Over Troubled Waters: The Anioma and the War-Time Trade with Biafra, 1967–1970

Author:
Odigwe A. Nwaokocha
Publication Date:
12-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:
The Nigeria-Biafra war was fought between the secessionist state of Biafra and Nigeria between 1967 and 1970. It witnessed intense struggles between the two contending parties to gain victory. Biafra struggled against many odds to survive not just militarily. This included the attempt by the Nigerian Federal Military Government to economically strangulate her, by stiffly enforcing a blockade that denied her of all goods, including food, nec-essary for her survival. The federal aim was to force her into surrendering and abandoning her proclaimed status as a state. Reacting to the exigency of the time, Biafra looked west and traded with the Anioma people in a way that enabled her to procure needed items. This prolonged the war with her Nigerian foe and elongated her survival. Many works exist on the Nigeria-Bi-afra war (Achuzia 1986; Akpan 1976; Alabi-Isama 2013; Anwunah 2007; de St. Jorre 1972; Madiebo 1980; Obasanjo 1980; Ogbemudia 1991; Okocha 1994; Okocha 2012; Tamuno and Ukpabi 1989; Uchendu 2007). One was authored by a top civil servant; five by ex-soldiers; two by a journalist and two by professional historians. They said very little on the war-time economy and trade on both sides of the divide. However, a few works focused on the economies of both sides during the war (Aboyade and Ayida 1971, 15-37; Adisa 1984, 93-104; Nafziger 1972, 223-245; Ogbudimkpa 1985; Okigbo 1989, 201-212). None of these works discussed the cross-border trade between the Anioma people and Biafra during the war. Gloria Chuku (2002, 216-228) and Egodi Uchendu (2007, 135-145) have, however, discussed aspects of the trans-border trade between Biafra and the Anioma. Both were restricted to the role of women in the trade. This work attempts a general examination of the trade, as it concerned the Anioma people.
Topic:
War, History, Economy, Trade, and Secession
Political Geography:
Africa, Nigeria, and Biafra

2245. Colonial Rule in Nigeria: The Auchi Kingdom Encounter with the British Colonialists and the Impacts

Author:
Yakubu Suleiman
Publication Date:
12-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:
The closing years of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth century witnessed the establishment of the British colonial rule in Nigeria. There is no gainsaying that the colonization of Nigeria by the British was not an easy task. The British encountered a lot of opposition or resistance from many ethnic groups or polities, while some willingly welcomed the British. The conquest and subjugation of the major ethnic groups or polities has been a common trend with most African historians. But little attention has been given to the minority or small groups like the Auchi Kingdom, in the present day Edo state, Nigeria. In the southern part of Nigeria, great attention has been given to the Benin Kingdom, while little attention has been given to Etsako land, where the Auchi Kingdom is located (Egbefo 2015, 1).Attention will be focused on the political, socio-economic conse-quences of colonial rule in the Auchi Kingdom and the significance of these after Nigeria gained independence in 1960.Colonial rule left behind a trail of development which had serious implications on the evolutionary develop-ment of the Auchi Kingdom into a modern Kingdom. This article is, therefore, aimed at explaining the impact of the innovations of the British on the Auchi Kingdom despite their interior motives and how these innovations impacted on the lives of the people even after the independence of Nigeria in 1960.
Topic:
History, Colonialism, Innovation, and Auchi Kingdom
Political Geography:
Africa, United Kingdom, and Nigeria

2246. Nation Branding in International Relations: The Case of Nigeria

Author:
Bruna Coelho Jaeger and Izabela Mota Bastos
Publication Date:
12-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:
Since the end of the Cold War, new forms of public diplomacy have been invented, especially after the advent of mass communication. The use of Nation Branding in International Relations has increased, as a supple-ment to one of the functions of public diplomacy: that of image creation and state propaganda. This method can be considered a way of restructuring a country’s business environment and projecting its international image, an image that is true to its national culture and history. Thus, its objective is to stimulate the reconstruction of foreign policy and international trade through the commercial refinement of a country. These are, hence, programs jointly led by state institutions and private enterprises.There is a constant struggle by countries to expose their identities and images in a positive way (Dinnie 2008), as they can’t be perceived by the International State System in accordance to their true cultural and political identity, essentially because these are subjective identities (Wendt 1992). Therefore, in order to understand this identity in an intersubjective way, an efficient system is necessary, such as Nation Branding. So, perceptions of identity must be collectively shared, otherwise there won’t be an interaction based on common interest in the International State System (Wendt 1999). Nation Branding is thus used as Nigeria’s main resource to break the colonial paradigm manipulated by the West.In light of this, this article’s main objective is to analyze the case of Nigeria’s Nation Branding in order to report on the danger of a single story and its impact on the country’s positioning internationally. Nigeria is a land of ancient kingdoms and multiple ethnic groups3, which until present days suffer the consequences of the scramble for Africa. In this way, the image that the West projects of Nigeria is that of “corruption, abuse, tribalism, religious fanaticism and lack of the most basic aspects of daily life” (Nation Branding 2009).
Topic:
International Relations, Propaganda, Public Diplomacy, and Image Creation
Political Geography:
Africa and Nigeria

2247. Nigeria’s Role in the Expulsion/Withdrawal of South Africa from the Commonwealth of Nations

Author:
Joshua Olusegun Bolarinwa and James Adewunmi Falode
Publication Date:
12-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:
Racial segregation in South Africa began in colonial times. The inhab-itants were classified into four racial groups (“native”, “white”, “coloured” and “Asian”) and residential areas were also segregated, sometimes by means of forced removals. From 1970, black people were deprived of their citizenship, legally becoming citizens of one of ten tribally based self-governing home-lands, unofficially called bantustans or Bantu homelands, established by the Apartheid Government as pseudo-national homelands, and areas where the majority of the Black population was moved to prevent them from living in the urban areas of South Africa, four of which became nominally indepen-dent states (Baldwin-Ragaven 1999). The government segregated education, medical care, beaches, and other public services, and provided black people with services inferior to those of white people. Apartheid sparked signifi-cant internal resistance and violence led by the African National Congress (ANC), as well as a long trade embargo against South Africa by some of the Commonwealth members. Since the 1950s, a series of popular uprisings and protests were met with the banning of opposition and imprisoning of anti-apartheid leaders who were mostly ANC members.
Topic:
Apartheid, History, Segregation, Regional Politics, and Commonwealth of Nations
Political Geography:
Africa, South Africa, and Nigeria

2248. Democracy in Africa: The Outstanding Case of Somaliland

Author:
Pio Penna Filho and Henrique Oliveira da Motta
Publication Date:
08-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:
This case study's objective is to structure a chronological explanation about how, even in a completely adverse situation, without international recognition and surrounded by conflicts, Somaliland was able to build a minimally functional and stable state. Using the existing literature about the issue, as well as analyses of international organization's reports and of some of the country's most important legal documents, such as its newest Constitution, we will try to reconstruct the events that led Somaliland to its current state of relative stability. Elements such as civil society's participation and traditional Somali governance mechanisms were used in a successful way in this process, mitigating the inevitable flaws of an emerging democracy. Consequently, as Kaplan (2008) writes, the case of Somaliland can bring important lessons not only to its neighbors, but also to other post-colonial nations in Africa and the Middle East.
Topic:
Governance, Democracy, Political stability, and State Building
Political Geography:
Africa and Somaliland

2249. The Ramaphosa Administration and the Return to South Africa’s Protagonism: Trends and Challenges to Foreign Policy

Author:
Anselmo Otavio
Publication Date:
08-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:
For this purpose, and along with this introduction, the article is struc-tured in three other sections. The first concerns the understanding of the main characteristics found in the foreign policy developed over the admin-istrations Mandela, Mbeki and Zuma. The second, on the other hand, refers to the Ramaphosa administration, whose objective will be to demonstrate the existence of points that symbolize convergence or divergence in its foreign policy when compared to previous governments. Finally, the third section corresponds to the final considerations, when it is expected to conclude that the current foreign policy maintains universality in foreign policy, multilat-eralism and economic diplomacy, initiatives that were already constant in previous administrations.
Topic:
Foreign Policy, Domestic Politics, Multilateralism, Economic Diplomacy, and Cyril Ramaphosa
Political Geography:
Africa and South Africa

2250. The Development of Post-Apartheid South Africa in Light of the Institutionalist Perspective: A Critical Review

Author:
João Paulo Davi Constantino, Robson Dias da Silva, and Georges Flexor
Publication Date:
08-2021
Content Type:
Journal Article
Journal:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Institution:
Brazilian Journal of African Studies
Abstract:
This work aims to present a critical analysis of the impacts on the diffusion of new international institutional and governance standards in the economic development of South Africa (in its broad sense). The study was divided into four sections, besides the introduction and the final consider-ations. The second section addresses the association between institutions and economic development in recent academic literature. The third section presents the methodology applied to assess the development of democracy, private and intellectual property rights, financial institutions, tariffs and commercial protection in the country, as well as of welfare and labor pro-tection institutions. The fourth section briefly addresses the South African democratic transition period back in the 1990s, highlighting its institutional and political shift towards a neoliberal model capable of favoring monetary stability and "big business", despite the chronic inequalities yet observed in the country nowadays. The fifth section makes an in-depth analysis of each of these institutions in the South African context and investigates the extent to which they have resulted in economic growth, reduced inequalities and have enabled better quality of life for the South African population. It was possible concluding that the association between institutions and economic development is more complex than the one presumed by many economists and international organisms, since it does not present a simple and lin-ear correlation. Moreover, it was observed that developing countries need to implement structural transformations that are beyond the sole power of market mechanisms.
Topic:
Apartheid, International Organization, Markets, Governance, Democracy, Institutions, Economic Development, and Democratic Transitions
Political Geography:
Africa and South Africa